day, which is worn over the shoulders by the deacon in the mass, when he holds the paten from the offertory to the Pater noster, and by the priest in giving benediction or carrying the Blessed Sacrament in procession.

HU'MERUS (Lat., shoulder). The largest and longest bone of the upper extremity; the bone of the arm proper, extending from the shoulder to the elbow. It is divided anatomically into a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity is rather the larger, and has a semi-globular head which is partially received into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula or shoulder-blade, forming a ball-and-socket joint. Two processes or projections of the shoulder-blade assist the glenoid cavity in completing the cavity or seat of the head of the humerus. There are three ligaments which hold the humerus to the scapula-the capsular, the coraco-humeral, and the glenoid, the relations being somewhat similar to those of the hip-joint (q.v.). The shaft of the humerus is nearly cylindrical in its upper part, but triangularly prismatic below, becoming flat, tened and broad at the lower extremity, where are placed the two condyles, with their articular surfaces, and the trochlea between them, which form, with the two bones of the forearm, the elbow-joint. (See ARM; SKELETON.) The broad, flat lower extremity has two depressions on the anterior aspect of the bone; one slight one on the outer side called the radial depression, which is for the reception of the anterior border of the head of the radius, when the arm is strongly flexed; the other, called the coronoid depression, for the reception of the coronoid process of the ulna during flexion of the arm. Opposite the latter depression, on the posterior surface of the bone, is a deep triangular depression, called the olecranon fossa, for the reception of the olecranon process of the ulna when the forearm is extended. The humerus forms with the scapula, as above mentioned, a ball-and-socket joint, the shoulder joint (q.v.). The elbow-joint is a hinge joint, and, to a certain extent, in its relation to the head of the radius, a ball-and-socket joint.

HUMFREY, HUMPHREY, or HUMPHRYS, PELHAM (1647-74). A famous English musician, and one of the founders of modern English music. He was born in London. He was one of the children of the Chapel Royal, and while yet a boy composed considerable Church music, and in a book of Divine Services and Anthems, published by Clifford in 1664, there are five anthems ascribed to him. Upon the breaking of his voice he was sent by Charles II. to France for instruction under Lully. The King was so impressed with the genius of the boy Humfrey that he caused him to be supplied with £200 from the secret-service money, to pay the expense of his journey, and in the two years following (1665-66) sent him £100 and £150, respectively. Upon his return in 1667, he was appointed to the Chapel Royal, where the music he had brought back with him was greatly admired. He had become very skillful in the art of scoring, which, added to his own genius, enabled him to compose anthems which have remained ever since models of beauty in expression, and strikingly apt in the artistic blending of words and music. He was appointed Gentleman of the Chapel Royal (1666) during his absence in France; became Master of the Children in 1672, Composer in

Ordinary for the Violins to His Majesty in 1673, and wrote many pieces for the King's band, an organization modeled after "Les Petits Violons" of Louis XIV. His compositions are still in use (many of them still in manuscript) in all the cathedrals and churches of England and America. They are remarkable for their expression and depth of sentiment, as well as for discoveries and departures in harmony; for instance: the sharp nor sixth on a bass note, a sequence of imperfect fifth, as a passing note, the major third and mififth and the augmented or extreme sharp sixth, and the flat third and sharp fourth, combinations new to church music, were utilized by him for the first time. It is supposed from the fact that he frequently indulged in extreme keys, such as C minor and F minor, that his violinists did not use fretted finger-boards, but tempered their scales at will. He died at Windsor and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey near the southeast door.

HUMIDITY (from Lat. humiditas, moisture, from humidus, umidus, moist, from humere, umere, to be moist; connected ultimately with Gk. vypós, hygros, Icel. vökr, moist), ATMOSPHERIC. The moisture or aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. This vapor is really an invisible gas, and is the most important component of the atmosphere as to quantity next after nitrogen and oxygen. When this invisible vapor becomes visible it is called dew, fog, mist, haze, cloud, rain, hail, snow, frostwork, or frost, according to the size of the drops of water or the method in which the vapor condenses. Water and ice are not included under the term 'atmospheric humidity that term being strictly confined to the invisible vapor.

The aqueous vapor in the air is perpetually falling to the earth as rain or snow, and is renewed by evaporation from the ocean, the lakes and rivers, and the soil itself. The quantity of aqueous vapor in a cubic foot of air varies greatly with temperature and locality on the earth's surface. Thus in the air of Arizona and New Mexico there is oftentimes only from 3 to 10 per cent. of the amount that could be held in case the air was saturated. The quantity that can be held in a saturated space varies greatly with the temperature, but does not depend upon the barometric pressure, and is also quite independent of the presence of air in that same space, since the aqueous vapor and the dry air co-exist side by side. The elastic pressure of the dry air and the elastic pressure of the aqueous vapor added together produce what is ordinarily called barometric or atmospheric pressure. The weight of the moisture and the weight of the dry air added together determine the density of a cubic foot of atmosphere at any time. When a cubic foot of space contains as much aqueous vapor as it can possibly hold at any given temperature, it is said to be saturated with moisture. The following table shows that there may be as much in an extreme case as twenty grains of invisible aqueous vapor in a cubic foot if the space is saturated at the temperature of 100° F., and this vapor will exert an elastic pressure of about one pound to the square inch, such as would be counterbalanced by a column of mercury of about 1.9 inches of the barometer. If, now, dry air is added to this cubic foot of space until a pressure of thirty inches is exerted in all directions, then the weight of the

dry air at a temperature of 100° F. will be 465 grains per cubic foot, and the combined weight of the vapor and the air, or the so-called saturated air, will be 485 grains. The following table gives these relations for saturation at a pressure of thirty inches and for temperatures between zero and a hundred, computed according to the data adopted in the Psychrometric Tables of Prof. C. F. Marvin (United States Weather Bureau, 1900):

This table shows that the capacity of the unit volume of space or air for aqueous vapor increases very rapidly with rising temperature. When the space is not saturated, the atmosphere is said to have a relative humidity expressed as a given percentage of complete saturation. Thus if the air has a temperature of 100 degrees and contains only 10 grains of vapor per cubic foot, it contains only 50 per cent. of the maximum amount possible at that temperature.

The humidity of the atmosphere is usually determined by either the dew-point apparatus or the psychrometric apparatus. In the former the air is cooled down without altering the quantity of moisture that it contains, and the temperature at which that moisture saturates the air is determined. This dew-point temperature is always lower than the temperature of the free air. In the psychrometric method the temperature of a thin layer of water that is evaporating under standard conditions in the open atmosphere is determined. From this temperature of evaporation the psychrometric formula gives us the vapor-tension, the temperature of the dew-point, and the quantity of moisture in the air. In general the temperature of the dew-point is about as far below the temperature of evaporation as the latter is below the temperature of the air.

The rate of evaporation from a moist surface diminishes with increasing humidity of the air, so that the total evaporation under a given wind in any given unit of time indicates the average dryness of the air during that time.

Nearly all animal and vegetable substances, by reason of their cellular structure, absorb moisture from moist air, but give it up to very dry air. They are, therefore, perpetually expanding and contracting, curling and uncurling, and their changes may be utilized in the construction of hygrometers. When moist air cools by radiation at night to temperatures below the dew-point, the vapor is precipitated, forming cloud, mist, fog, or dew. On the other hand, when air rises, thereby coming under less pressure, it expands, does work, and is cooled dynamically by reason of the work done. Ordinary

The humidity of the atmosphere, although invisible, has a special and strong influence in absorbing radiant energy, whether from the sun or from the earth. It therefore converts the dry air into a powerful obstructor to the passage of radiant heat, and by this means the humid atmosphere is made to act as a blanket, keeping the earth and the lower air much warmer than it would otherwise be. See HYGROMETER.

monastic Order, which originated in the eleventh HUMIL'IA'TI (Lat. nom. pl., humbled). A or twelfth century, and was confirmed by Innohad 94 houses, with about 170 monks, in Italy, cent III. in 1201. In the sixteenth century it but as it was corrupt, Carlo Borromeo (q.v.) tried to reform it. This attempt led to a murderous assault on him, so Pius V. in 1571 suppressed the Order. Several of their houses were turned over to the Barnabites.-A female Order of Benedictines, known as humiliate nuns, or soni of Milan, served as nurses, etc. The Order nuns of Blassoni, from their founder, Clara Blasstill exists in Italy, with four houses.

HUMMEL, hum'mel, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1778-1837). A distinguished Austrian pianist and composer, born at Pressburg and educated primarily by his father, who was a musicteacher. When but eight years of age he accompanied his father to Vienna on the appointment of the latter as kapellmeister of Schikaneder's Theatre. Here he came under the notice of Mozart, who became so interested in the boy that he admitted him to his own family and instructed him for two years. His début in 1787 was also under the auspices of Mozart. Next followed a number of very successful tours through Germany, Denmark, England, and Holland. Probably no other musician in the entire history of music had so distinguished a number of teachers and patrons as Hummel. Beginning with Mozart, his next teacher was Clementi, with whom he studied in London during 1791, followed by a course of study in composition under Albrechtsberger in Vienna (1793), while at the same time he was studying with Salieri in dramatic writing, and receiving much indirect, but nevertheless profit

able, advice and instruction from the great Haydn. His entire career was marked by success and the appreciation of the public; so much so that at one time he was considered to

rival Beethoven. His principal appointments were as follows: From 1804 to 1811, deputy kapellmeister under Haydn in the service of Prince Eszterházy; 1811-16, a successful teacher of composition in Vienna; kapellmeister to the Court of Stuttgart 1816-19, when he resigned to take a similar position at Weimar. None of these appointments interfered with his concert activities, for during his many leaves of absence he appeared in Saint Petersburg (1822), in Paris (1825), Belgium and Holland (1826), Vienna (1827), Warsaw (1828), and made a return visit to France in 1829. He appeared in London, and was for a season the musical director of German opera at the King's Theatre. From this time on his health gradually failed, and after much suffering he died at Weimar. He was a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and during his lifetime received many tokens of princely favor. As a pianist he ranked with the most famous of his generation, and as a composer was of scarcely less excellence. His compositions number over a hundred, and include operas, cantatas, ballets, and considerable chamber music. For the Church, he wrote three masses arranged for four voices with orchestral and organ accompaniment, which are still held in high esteem. His Graduale and Offertorium are in use to-day throughout Austria and Hungary. At least six of his concertos and a few of his sonatas remain standard works, and are in constant demand. He is of importance in the history of music, if only because of his efforts to introduce the present method of fingering in pianoforte study.

HUMMEL, KARL (1821-). A German landscape painter and engraver, son of the composer, Johann Nepomuk Hummel. He was born at Weimar, studied engraving under Schwerdgeburth and painting under Preller, with whom he traveled through Europe. From an earlier and idealized manner, after the fashion of Preller or of Claude Lorraine, Hummel gradually approached a more natural treatment, and turned in this second period from Italian scenery to landscapes nearer home. Among his pictures, of which many belong to the Grand Duke of Weimar, are: "The Gardens of Armida," which is his most important work (1858); "View of Brienz Lake" (1858), and "View in Lauterbrunn Valley" (1859), both in the Leipzig Museum; "Cività Castellana" (1879); "Monte Coracte:" "Keller Lake in Holstein" (1884); and a "Wooded Landscape Near Michaelstein" (1888). His engravings of landscapes are also well known. Hummel became professor in the Weimar Academy of Art in 1859. HUMMELER (from hummel, variant of humble, hamble, to mutilate, from AS. hamelian, OHG. hamalon, to maim, Ger. hammeln, hämmeln, to geld, from OHG. hamal, ham, mutilated; possibly connected with Skt. sam, to injure). A hand implement or machine used especially in Scotland, for removing the awn from the grain of barley after it has been thrashed. A common kind of hummeler is a set of blunt knives fixed in a frame, with a handle, by means of which the machine is operated. Another form consists of blunt knives set on a roller. Hummelers of various construction are sometimes at

tached to threshing-machines, in all of which blunt knives are made to pass frequently through the grain.

HUMMING-BIRD (so called from the sound of its whirring wings). One of the diminutive birds of the picarian family Trochilidæ, closely related to the swifts. More than 400 species are known, exclusively American, and mainly confined to the tropics, though a few species are summer visitors to colder latitudes, as far even as 61° N. A few, also, of the tropical species inhabit elevated mountainous tracts, even to the confines of perpetual snow. In the United States eighteen species of humming-birds are known, but only one of these is found east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. All of the others belong to the Southwestern States and the Pacific Coast (see following page).

CHARACTERISTICS. The brilliancy of hummingbirds, the rapidity with which they dart through the air, their hovering above the flowers from which they obtain their food, with a humming sound of wings which move so quickly as to be indistinctly visible, or like a mist, have attracted universal admiration. The diminutive size of almost all of them-some are the smallest of birds, and when stripped of their feathers not larger than a bumblebee-has still further contributed to render them objects of interest. Like the bumblebees, too, they perform a service in the cross-fertilization of flowers. Consult Belt, Naturalist in Nicaragua (London, 1888).

The largest known species is Patagona gigas of the Andes, which reaches a length of 8 inches, but this is really gigantic, few species exceeding 6 inches. The smallest known species is Calypte Helena, which is only 24 inches long; it is a native of Cuba.

The plumage of the different species exhibits an almost endless variety of form as well as of color, in crests, neck-tufts, leg-tufts, and many an extraordinary development of tail. The plumage of the males is usually far more varied and glittering than that of the females, and this tribe furnishes an extensive and forcible example in support of the doctrine of sexual selection (q.v.). The metallic brilliance of the plumage, which in the gorgets and elsewhere often exhibits a gem-like coruscation and iridescence, is due to the interference of light by the minute scales upon the surface of each feather, and not to pigments. The young resemble their mothers until they reach maturity.

FOOD, ETC. Humming-birds have slender bills, which are also generally long, and in some extremely so, the form of the bill exhibiting adaptation to the kind of flowers from which the bird obtains its food-straight in some, curved in others. The bill of the 'swordbill' (Docimastes ensiferus) is 5 inches long, much longer than the head, body, and tail of the bird together, while in Rhamphomicron microrhynchum the bill is only 14 of an inch long. In the sicklebilled humming-birds (see HERMIT HUMMINGBIRD) the bill is notably curved so as to form almost one-third of a circle, while in Avocettula it is sharply and abruptly recurved at the tip. Humming-birds do not, as was long supposed, feed on honey alone, but to a considerable extent, and some of them perhaps chiefly, on insects, not excepting spiders, while they often snatch away the insects which have become entangled in spiders' webs. The lower mandible fits into the