HUG, hoog, JOHANN LEONHARD (1765-1846). A Roman Catholic scholar. He was born at Constance, June 1, 1765, studied at Freiburg, and in 1789 entered into priest's orders. In 1791 he was appointed professor of Oriental languages and of the Old Testament at Freiburg, and in 1792 of the New Testament also. The most important fruit of his biblical researches was his Introduction to the New Testament (1808; 4th ed. 1847; Eng. trans., London, 1827, New York, 1830). His great eminence as a biblical scholar led to his being called on to take part in the arrangement of the newly organized studies of several German universities, as at Breslau, in 1811; at Bonn, in 1816; at Tübingen, in 1817; and again at Bonn, 1818, and 1831. He died March 11, 1846. Among his untranslated works are De Antiquitate Codicis Vaticana Commentatio (1810); Das hohe Lied (1813); De Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina

Commentatio (1818); Gutachten über das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet von D. Fr. Strauss (1835); and several on subjects of classical criticism, especially an interesting work on the ancient mythologies (1812). Consult A. Maier, Gedächtnissrede auf Hug (Freiburg, 1847).

HÜGEL, hugel, KARL ALEXANDER ANSELM, Freiherr von (1796-1870). An Austrian soldier, traveler, and naturalist, born at Regensburg; He visited Greece, Crete, and Cyprus, examined the ruins of Palmyra and Baalbek, made numerous journeys through Syria and Palestine, and arrived at Bombay in 1832. Thereupon he traversed the greater part of the Deccan, ascended the Nil-Gherria range, undertook thorough geographical researches in Ceylon, and in 1833 shipped from Madras to Australia (then New Holland). He returned to India (Calcutta) by way of the Philippines, penetrated through Bengal to the Tibetan frontier, and reached Vienna early in 1837. He contributed papers regarding his expedition to Austrian scientific publications and to the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, and wrote also: Kaschmir und das Reich der Sick (4 vols., 1840-42); Das Kabulbecken (2 vols., 1850-52); and Der Stille Ozean und die spanischen Besitzungen im ostindischen Archipel (1860). Other scholars, among them Endlicher, Heckel, Fenzl, and Schott, also prepared the results of his scientific collections. He obtained a European reputation as a horticulturist, and founded and became president of the Austrian Horticultural Society.

HUGER, ú-je', BENJAMIN (1805-77). An American soldier, prominent on the Confederate side in the Civil War. He was born in Charleston, S. C.; graduated at West Point in 1825; and served in topographical and ordnance duty until the Mexican War, in which he was chief of ordnance in General Scott's army. For his services he was brevetted successively major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel. From 1848 until 1860 he commanded various arsenals. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Confederate service as a brigadier-general, and was soon promoted to be a major-general, in which capacity he commanded a division in the Seven Days' Battles against McClellan, but was relieved from his command for his failure to intercept the Federal army after the battle of Malvern Hill. He subsequently served in the ordnance department in the Trans-Mississippi district.

HUGER, ISAAC (1742-97). An American soldier in the Revolution, born on Limerick Plantation, S. C., of French Huguenot ancestry. He was sent to France to be educated, and on his return to America served in 1760 as a lieutenant of a volunteer militia company, in a campaign against the Cherokees. With his four brothers, he entered enthusiastically into the revolutionary movement. He served first as colonel in the South Carolina militia organization, and in January, 1779, was commissioned brigadier-general in the Continental Army. He took part in all the campaigns in the South, was especially relied upon by General Greene, to whom he was second in command in his North Carolina campaign against Cornwallis in the early months of 1781, and was wounded at the battle of Guilford Court House.

An He de

HUGGINS, Sir WILLIAM (1824-). English astronomer, born in London. voted himself to the study of astronomy, and in 1856 built an observatory at his residence in Upper Tulse Hill, London, in which he mounted careful drawings of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. a telescope of eight-inch aperture, and made His attention was first engaged in observations on double stars, but afterwards he took up spectrum analysis. His first discovery in this line was presented to the Royal Society in a paper

on the "Lines of Some of the Fixed Stars." He found also that some of the nebulæ gave a spectrum of a few bright lines only, which showed that the light had emanated from heated matter in the state of gas; and, further, that one of the principal constituents of the gaseous nebula is hydrogen. He concluded, therefore, that the nebulae are not simply clusters of stars too distant to be separately distinguished, but relics of the mass of glowing gas from which the solar system is supposed to have been formed by condensation. (See NEBULE.) He has also examined the spectra of comets, and has found that part of the light of these objects is different from the solar light. He also proved the existence of carbon in comets. Huggins was the first to apply Doppler's principle (q.v.) to the measurement of stellar velocities toward the solar system or away from it. This important kind of observation has since been carried on by many astronomers, and promises to throw entirely new light on the constitution of the sidereal universe.

He also made innovations along other lines. He introduced photography into astronomy, which, however, was of limited use till about 1875, when the invention of the gelatin dry plate enabled the astronomer by long exposure to accumulate sufficient amount of light to obtain good pictures of celestial objects, too faint to be seen even with the most powerful telescope. Huggins also invented a spectroscopic method for studying the red prominences of the sun, and proved, through a laboratory experiment, the existence of calcium in the solar prominences and chromosphere. In all his various researches Huggins has been ably assisted by his wife. In recognition of his services to science, a number of honors were bestowed upon Huggins by various scientific bodies. He was president of the Royal Astronomical Society from 1876 to 1878, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1891. He was chosen president of the Royal Society in 1900, and has at different

times received the Royal, the Copley, and the Rumford medals. Besides a number of original papers, he published, jointly with Lady Huggins, An Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra (1900), which received the Actonian Prize of the Royal Institution.

HUGH, hū (?-947). King of Provence and Italy. He was the son of Lothair, Count of Arles, and after the death of Louis the Blind (923) became ruler of Provence. In 926 he was crowned King of Italy at Paris, by the subjects of Rudolph, who were in revolt. His attempts to make himself Emperor involved him in constant war. Lombardy was invaded by the Hungarians, and Berengar finally drove him into Provence, where he died.

HUGH, SAINT (c.1135-1200) . Bishop of Lincoin. He was born at Avalon, near Ponteharra, Burgundy, on the border of Savoy, about 1135. His father was Lord of Avalon, but renounced the world when Hugh was eight years old and took his son with him into a monastery near Grenoble. In 1160 Hugh became a Carthusian monk at the Grand Chartreuse, and won such high repute that he was called in 1175 by Henry II. of England to put in order a monastery of the Order at Witham, Somerset. His great success led to his election as Bishop of Lincoln in 1186. Every year he spent a little time in retreat in Witham Monastery, but the rest of his time he lived the life of a busy and most efficient bishop. His moral courage made him fearless in resisting unjust demands from King or peasant, and a charity which was boundless endeared him to the people. So while he lived he was held in universal esteem, and when he died in London, November 16, 1200, he was not forgotten, and his tomb in Lincoln Cathedral became a place of pilgrimage. Consult his life in Latin edited by Dimock (London, 1864); in English by Perry (ib., 1879); Thurston (ib., 1898); Bramley (1901), in connection with memorial sermons on the 700th anniversary of his death (Lincoln, 1901); and by Charles Marson (London, 1901). HUGH CAPET, hū kā'pět, Fr. HUGUES CAPET, ug kȧ'pâ' (939-96). King of France from 987 to 996. He was a son of Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, and Hedwig, a sister of Otho the Great of Germany. Hugh Capet succeeded his father as Count of Paris in 956, and became thereby the real ruler of the country, though the title of King still belonged to the Carolingians. When, in 987, Louis V., the last Carolingian King of France, died without heirs, Charles, Duke of Lorraine, claimed the throne by descent, but at a meeting of the nobles and prelates of the realm at Senlis it was declared that the crown was elective, and thereupon Hugh was chosen, and became the founder of the Capetian dynasty (q.v.). Charles of Lorraine was easily defeated in the contest which ensued. The rest of Hugh's life was passed in a kind of border warfare against the great feudatories whose territories surrounded the royal domain. In 988 he had his son Robert elected and crowned as his successor.

HUGHENDEN, hū'en-den (Hitchendom). A parish of Buckinghamshire, England, among the Chiltern Hills, north of High Wycombe (Map: England, F 5). It is noted for Hughenden Manor, long the residence of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield. Earl and Lady Beacons

field are buried in the parish church, which contains a monument erected by Queen Victoria to the statesman's memory. Population, 1800.

HUGHES, hüz, BALL (1806-68). An American sculptor. He was born in London, studied seven years with Edward H. Bailey, and won several important prizes at the Royal Academy. He also executed a bust and a statuette of George IV. In 1829 he came to New York and made a marble statue of Alexander Hamilton for the Merchants' Exchange. It was destroyed in the fire of 1835. He also made the high relief of Bishop Hobart, now in Trinity Church, New York City. Among his later works are a bronze statue of Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch, in Mount Auburn Cemetery, near Boston, a statuette of Gen. Joseph Warren, a bust of Washington Irving, and a model for an equestrian statue of Washington.

HUGHES, DAVID EDWARD (1831-1900). An English-American inventor. He was born in London, but was early brought by his parents to the United States, where he subsequently received his education at Bardstown College, Kentucky. In 1850 he was made professor of music, and later of natural philosophy at that college. In 1855 he took out a patent for his first important invention-the printing telegraph, which bears his name. After his telegraph was adopted in the United States, he went to Europe (1857), where the instrument was successively adopted by France, Italy, England, Russia, Germany, Austria, Turkey, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Spain. Among his other inventions and discoveries may be mentioned the microphone (1878) and the induction balance (1879). In recognition of the great value of his services to commerce and the arts, medals and numerous titles of honor were bestowed upon him by various scientific bodies, and by the governments of nearly all the European States. His publications comprise a number of papers on electricity and magnetism, presented to the Royal Society (of which he was a fellow), and to other societies.

HUGHES, HUGH PRICE (1847-1902). A British minister of the Wesleyan Church. He was born at Carmarthen, South Wales, and was educated at University College, London, and the theological school in Richmond, Surrey. Obliged by the laws of his Church to move every three years, he left the charge he had taken at Dover in 1869 for Brighton, and was afterwards at Oxford, and in three different London churches before he became stationary in the metropolis as superintendent of the West London Mission and editor of the Methodist Times (1885). He refused to accept from the mission a salary greater than $1500, and during the last year of his life, having received a small legacy, served gratuitously. His publications include: Social Christianity (1889); The Atheist Shoemaker (1889); The Philanthropy of God (1890); and Ethical Christianity (1892). Consult Hugh Price Hughes as We Knew Him (London, 1902).

HUGHES, JOHN (1797-1864). An American prelate, first Archbishop of New York; born in Annaloghan, County Tyrone, Ireland. Brought up in the northern or Protestant section of his native land, where Orange societies were rife, he early became imbued with the combative spirit which ever afterwards characterized him. His parents were poor, and could give him little

schooling, but he educated himself, and at the age of twenty emigrated to the United States, where he worked as a day laborer in Maryland and Pennsylvania for three years, until he gained admission to the Roman Catholic College of Mount Saint Mary, Emmitsburg, Md. There he earned distinction as a debater and also as a collector of funds for the rebuilding of the college after it was burned down. He was ordained a priest in 1826, and the same year the first of bis controversial pamphlets was published, An Answer to Nine Objections Made by an Anonymous Writer Against the Catholic Religion. After being assistant at the Church of Saint Augustine, Philadelphia, he went to Bedford, Pa., thence returned to Philadelphia (1827), to take charge of Saint Joseph's Church, afterwards took charge of Saint Mary's, and was the founder of Saint John's Orphan Asylum (1829). From 1833 to 1835 he published in the Catholic Herald his replies to his Presbyterian antagonist, Dr. Breckenridge. In 1838 he was appointed coadjutor of the Bishop of New York, four years afterwards became a bishop himself, and continued his controversies upon educational, political, and religious affairs, in which his oratorical powers exerted a potent influence. One of Bishop Hughes's first undertakings was the establishment of a short-lived theological seminary at Lafargeville, Jefferson County, which was reopened at Fordham under the name of Saint John's College in 1841. In 1850 he was made an archbishop, and in 1861 was sent on a special embassy to gain the friendship of France for the North in the Civil War, extending his influence in the same cause both to Ireland and Italy. Two volumes of his writings, edited by Lawrence Kehoe, were published in 1865 after his death. Consult: Hassard, Life of John Hughes (New York, 1866); and Brann, John Hughes (New York, 1892), in the "Makers of America Series."

HUGHES, THOMAS (1823-96). An English author and politician, second son of John Hughes, of Donington Priory, Newbury, Berkshire, born at Uffington, Berks. He was educated at Rugby under the celebrated Dr. Arnold: graduated B.A. from Oriel College, Oxford, in 1845; was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1848, and became a member of the chancery bar. In 1856 he gave to the world Tom Brown's School Days-a picture of life at a public school, evidently written from the author's own personal experience, and recording the vivid and enduring impressions he brought with him from Rugby. It was followed, in 1858, by The Scouring of the White Horse; in 1861, by Tom Brown at Oxford, in which the mental history of his hero is continued, with sketches of college life and incidents; and in 1869, by Alfred the Great. Hughes pursued meanwhile the study and practice of the law; and was appointed Queen's Counsel in 1869. He gained the confidence and good-will of the working classes by endeavoring to promote a better understanding between masters and men, and by teaching the latter the value of cooperation as a means of social elevation. At the general election for Lambeth in 1865, he was placed at the head of the poll, the workingmen being especially enthusiastic in securing his return. In 1868 he was returned for Frome, which he continued to represent till 1874, and always took a prominent part in debates relating to the combinations

of trades-unions, and the amendment of the law of master and servant. In 1880 he took a leading part in the socialistic settlement at Rugby, Tenn. Hughes also wrote: Memoir of a Brother (1873); Vacation Rambles (1895); and several other works.

HUGH OF LINCOLN, liņʼkon. A boy who is the hero of a medieval legend. The story is told variously in the chronicles and ballads. According to one version, twenty-four boys were the ball through the window of a Jew, was enplaying ball. Sir Hugh of Lincoln, who kicked ticed into the castle by the Jew's daughter, murdered, and thrown into a well, from which he addressed his mother miraculously, and thus disclosed the crime. The story, based upon the belief that the Jews murdered Christian children, is found throughout the popular literature of medieval Europe. It received the highest Consult Child, English and Scottish Popular Balartistic treatment in Chaucer's Prioress's Tale. lads, part v. (Boston, 1888).

HUGH OF LUSIGNAN, lu'ze'nyäN'. The name of several counts of La Marche, of whom the best known is Hugh X. (1208-49). During his father's life King John of England had robbed him of his bride, Isabella of Angoulême. After John's death he married Isabella, who styled herself countess-queen. He participated in the crusade against Damietta (1219). During the minority of Louis IX. he was one of the leading nobles who revolted against the regent, Blanche of Castile, but was compelled to submit. 1241 he insulted his overlord, the brother of Saint Louis. The latter subdued him, but pardoned him.

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HUGH THE GREAT (?-956). Count of Paris (called also THE WHITE). On the death in 923 of his father, Robert I., who had been elected King of France in opposition to Charles the Simple, he could have taken the title of King, but instead permitted it to go to his brother-inlaw, Rudolph of Burgundy. He took the same course after the death, in 936, of Rudolph, who was succeeded by Louis d'Outre Mer, a young son of Charles the Simple. Meanwhile Hugh had amassed large estates, and as Louis proved anything but a docile King, Hugh was forced to seek the assistance of his brother-in-law, Otho the Great of Germany, in the war that ensued. The King was captured and released, after giving up mediately renewed the struggle, and this time to his conqueror the city of Laon. Louis imwas victorious. Peace was proclaimed in 950. Four years afterwards Hugh again had the opportunity to make himself King, on Louis's death (954), but he favored the election of Lothair, and in reward for his services was invested with the duchies of Aquitaine and Burgundy. It was his son, Hugh Capet, who ascended the throne thirty years later.

HUGH THE GREAT (1057-1101). Count of Vermandois, the third son of Henry 1. of France. He joined the First Crusade (1096), and was taken prisoner. Rescued by Godfrey de Bouillon, he continued to fight in the Holy Land, and died there from the effects of a wound received near Nicæa. There seems to have been no reason for his being called 'The Great,' except that that was the customary sobriquet among the Capetians.

HUGLI, or HOOGLY, hoogʻli. The westernmost and principal deltaic channel of the Ganges, British India, formed by the junction of three offsets of the Ganges, the Bhagirathi, the Jalangi, and the Churni, known as the Nadiya rivers (Map: India, E 4). It is 125 miles long, the estuary, as far as Saugor Roads, measuring 35 miles more. It is the most available for navigation of all the channels by which the Ganges reaches the sea. In the dry season the tide is felt as high as Chandernagar, 17 miles above Calcutta. During the southwest monsoon the Hugli is subject to a bore seven feet high, often ascending at the rate of 22 miles an hour. Ships drawing 26 feet of water can ascend to the port of Calcutta. The entrance of the river is much incumbered with shoals, and dredgers are constantly employed in maintaining a clear channel. HUGLI, or HOOGLY. A city and river port of Bengal, British India, capital of a district of the same name, on the right or western bank of the river Hugli, 27 miles north of Calcutta, in latitude 22° 54' N., and longitude 88° 22' E., on the Calcutta and Allahabad Railway. The city was founded by the Portuguese in 1547. Chinsura (q.v.), which now forms a part of it, was founded by the Dutch. It contains several important educational institutions, including the Hugli College, and is also the seat of an extensive military cantonment. Population, in 1891, 33,060; in 1901, 29,383.

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HUGO, hoo'go, GUSTAV VON (1764-1844). German jurist, born at Lörrach, Baden, and educated at Göttingen. After acting as tutor to the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (1786), he became professor of law at Göttingen (1788). In 1819 he was made Privy Councilor. He made important investigations of the sources of Roman law. He was, together with Savigny and Haubold, one of the founders of the historical method in jurisprudence. He edited: Ulpiani Fragmenta (1788); translated Gibbon's chapter on Roman law as Uebersicht des römischen Rechts (1789); Pauli Sententiæ Receptæ (1796); and Jus Civile Ante-Justinianum (1815). But his most important labor was his own book, Lehrbuch eines civilistischen Kursus (1792), and his Civilistisches Magazin (1814-37), with its supplement, Beiträge zur civilistischen Bücherkenntnis der letzten vierzig Jahre (1828-45). Consult Eys senhardt, Zur Erinnerung an Gustav Hugo (Ber

lin, 1845).

HUGO, 'go', VICTOR MARIE (1802-85). The greatest French poet of his century, a distinguished dramatist, novelist, essayist, and politician. His first volume appeared in 1822. For nearly two-thirds of the century he was a leader in French literature, for the greater part of that time preeminently the leader. He represents the supreme reach of an individualistic and romantic movement. Besançon, his birthplace, had once been a Spanish city-a significant fact, for his work often shows Spanish influence. His father was a distinguished officer of the Republic and Empire, his mother the daughter of a sea captain of Nantes, of royalist and Catholic sympathies. With her the child lived in Paris till 1811, when General Hugo summoned his family to join him in Madrid, whence he was constrained to send them back in 1812, as King Joseph's cause was growing desperate. The impressions of this year left deep marks on many of Victor's works, notably Bug Jargal,

Hernani, Ruy Blas, and Torquemada. Afterwards, until the fall of the Empire, he was once more with his mother in Paris in the abandoned Convent of Les Feuillantines, which appears prominently in Les Misérables. Set at technological studies by his father, he aspired at fourteen 'to be Chateaubriand or nothing,' wrote a Miltonic Deluge, and planned dramas, epics, and operas. At fifteen he competed for an Academic prize, winning honorable mention and some minor literary patronage. Two years later (1819) he won three prizes at the poetic competition (Jeux Floraux) of Toulouse. He also wrote at this time, though he did not publish it in this form till his old age, a novel, Bug Jargal, a story of Haiti, of great promise and weird power. An extended revision of this was printed in 1826. In 1819 he founded a fortnightly literary journal, Le Conservateur Littéraire, the failure of which, with the withdrawal of his allowance from his father, reduced him to a poverty that gave materials for the Marius episodes in Les Misérables. His brother, Abel, generously helped him to print Odes et poésies diverses (1822), which paid him 700 francs, and caused King Louis XVIII. to grant him a pension of 1500 francs, increased later to 3000. On the strength of this he married (October, 1822), and thereafter enjoyed a happy domestic life. These verses, in their brilliant rhetoric and richness of rhythmic melody, had been approached in that generation only by Lamartine's Méditations. They show an ardent royalism, a perfunctory and sonorous religiosity, and an intense political passion, on which Napoleon was already beginning to exercise a fascination that declared itself openly in the superb Ode on the Vendôme Column (1827).

The next few years were occupied with an extravagantly romantic novel, Han d'Islande (1823), and with literary journalism. In 1826 appeared Nouvelles odes et ballades, whose preface was a sort of literary manifesto of Romanticism, and of the first Cénacle (q.v.). Versification and rhythm here begin to show an aggressive individuality, and several poems indicate that sympathetic study of the mediaval mind which is associated with French Romanti

cism.

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Hugo was recognized as the Romantic leader, and asserted and confirmed that position by Cromwell (1827). As early as 1826 the Odéon Theatre had offered hospitality to English company, in which were Charles KemThis company played ble and Miss Smithson. Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet, all of which were enthusiastically greeted by the new French school. Indeed. Kemble and his com-. panions did not leave the Odéon till July, 1828. Cromwell begins with an elaborate preface full of dramaturgic observations, more opportune than new; but they now became the rallyingpoint of a school who thought "the drama the only complete poetry of our time, the only poetry with a national character." This school demanded for the drama an unconventional vocabulary and a mingling of tragic and comic, to show more fully the irony of destiny, thus unconsciously following Diderot (q.v.), while attempting to follow nature. In all Hugo's dramas the lyric element tends to delay the dramatic effect. Hernani and Ruy Blas alone are still played in France.

Cromwell was followed by a drama taken from

Scott's Kenilworth-Amy Robsart (1829), a failure-and Marion Delorme, which the censorship forbade the stage till 1831. In 1829 Hugo published Les Orientales, a collection of poems containing some of the most striking pieces of metrical art in the world. They were followed by the long-contested triumph of Hernani and of Romanticism on the French stage (1830), after Hugo had vainly tried to bring about the performance of Marion Delorme. For nearly a hundred days, from February 26th to June 5th, the battle raged nightly at the Théâtre Français, but no further organized effort was made to resist the retrograde evolution of the Romantic drama till it collapsed with Hugo's Les Burgraves in 1843. The situation in Hernani is strained and dramatically unreal, the sentiment is mawkish, the oratory grandiloquent; but a throbbing life and intensely expressed emotion maintain the interest, though this is a lyric rather than a dramatic one. The same qualities and the same defects, with more strained antithesis of grotesque and sublime, tragic and comic, foul and fair, characterize Marion Delorme (1830). They characterize also Le roi s'amuse (1832); the prose dramas, Lucrèce Borgia (1833); Marie Tudor (1833); Angelo, tyran de Pedoue (1835). They reach their height in Ruy Blas (1838), and become most conspicuous in Les Burgraves (1843). Hugo's conceptions were too grandiose to be reconcilable with the limitations of the drama. He gave up the effort and turned to politics. But these sixteen mainly dramatic years had produced work of great value in other fields, the novel Notre-Dame de Paris (1831), with its Gothic intensity of pathos and its marvelous reproduction of the Paris of Louis XI.; the Quixotic but eloquent Claude Gueux (1834), a plea against capital punishment; the Feuilles d'automne (1831); Chants du crépuscule (1835); Voix intérieures (1837); Les rayons et les ombres (1840); four collections of poems that show growing democratic sympathies and satiric power, a deepening communion with nature, and a generous warmth of universal sympathy, a little shallow in its breadth, that was to give the keynote to his political activity of the next decade. The ten years from 1843 to 1853, from Les Burgraves to Les châtiments, count no literary work of import, but they mark a vital change in the mind of Hugo that affects all the work to follow. Till 1843 drama had taken the first place. From 1853 fiction becomes more prominent, poetry intermittent, with occasional political writings. Hugo sees that his power is essentially lyric, and gives this a dominant place even in prose fiction. Through all there is a new earnestness, born in part of the death of his daughter, Leopoldine, and her young husband (1843), in part of a vague yet intense enthusiasm for the socialistic ideas of Fourier and Proudhon which drew him into a political whirlpool and made him a revolutionary member of the Constituent Assembly of 1848. As a practical politician, then and always, Hugo was a failure. He favored the ambition of Louis Napoleon, till Louis ceased to favor his own advancement; he was an advocate of several hopelessly unpractical schemes, and an unconscious convert to the caressing flattery of Emile de Girardin. Napoleon's coup d'état of 1851 saved Hugo from himself. It made a martyr and hero out of a visionary who was distrusted as a turncoat. In his eloquent Histoire

These years of exile steeled his mind, and his genius was fired by what seemed his country's shame. In 1852 appeared the fierce and scurrilous Napoléon le Petit, a foretaste of the Les châtiments (1853) in which the satiric unites with the lyric genius to produce a classic that will survive for generations the Empire that fired Hugo to a white heat. To calmer hours we owe Les contemplations (1856), a collection of lyrics closing in a noble strain, and the first of four volumes of La légende des siècles (1859, 1877, 1883), the high-water mark of his achievement in lyrical epic. In 1862 the long-heralded Les Misérables appeared on the same day in ten languages-an event till then unparalleled in the annals of letters. The ten volumes of this vast romance reveal Hugo, no longer as in NotreDame, an evoker of the past, but with eyes on the present and heart in the future. It lacks continuity and proportion. It is a chaos of eloquent special pleading, political reminiscences, socialistic prophecies, bad psychology, grotesque situations, false pathos, and descriptions wonderfully vivid and absorbing. In the hurly-burly of this lyric-epic novel we find most of the virtues and all the intellectual vices of Hugo. Its value lies not in its thought, but in its emotion, its lyric cry, and its epic power of description. On the development of fiction it had no influence, for it belonged to a type already outworn. The same may be said of Les travailleurs de la mer (1866), in which the descriptions are superb, and the subject petty. L'homme qui rit (1869), an historical phantasmagoria of the English Court of Elizabeth and an unmitigated failure, closes the fiction of the exile. Meanwhile Hugo's poetic muse had had her Indian summer in Chansons des rues et des bois (1865). But as the Empire tottered to its fall, his inauspicious interest in politics became once more dominant. He wrote much for Le Rappel, a radical journal, founded by his sons and son-in-law, but revealed once more, in 1870, the hopelessly unpractical nature of his political ideas, alike as a prophet of the people and as a member of the National Assembly at Bordeaux in 1871. He resigned his seat in March and went to Brussels, where he barely escaped being mobbed, owing to his defense of the Paris Commune. He was expelled from Belgium, and soon after returned to Paris. Here he failed signally in the elections of 1872, though he was elected life Senator in 1876. But if he might not be a tribune, he was already the poet laureate of the Third Republic. Of the Les châtiments 100.000 copies were sold within a year, several plays, notably Ruy Blas, were revived with success, and he rose to the new occasion in L'année terrible (1872), a noble volume of patriotic verse that made a French critic exclaim, with just pride, that Germany had no such poet to sing her victory as France to glorify even her disaster.