by an absolute prince; and, in order to the execution, all the despotism of the czar was applied. By it he at least laid the foundation of the real grandeur of the empire, and, we may add, the happiness of the Russians; if a people, by becoming civilized, can be truly happy without being free. Le Fort died; but this loss did not alter the plan of reformation. As the dislike to foreigners was one of the great obstructions to the designs of the czar, he thought it necessary to abolish the external marks by which they were distinguished from his subjects, who wore their beards and clothes long. His example was sufficient to effect it at court, but the people were so obstinate that it was necessary to employ violence. A tax was laid upon the refractory, and the clothes and beards of those who refused to pay were cut. According to the writer of the czar's history, this was executed with an air of gaiety which prevented seditions, though undoubtedly there was enough to occasion them; but, probably, fear had a greater effect than a dissembled gaiety. Besides, the bulk of the people still preserve their old dress.

Patriarch Peter had experienced how dangerous the abolished. clergy become by their prejudices and cabals when they acquire too great power. The patriarch being dead, that great dignity was suppressed, and the revenue added to the crown, the church receiving its laws from Peter, who kept it in constant subjection. Being desirous to lessen the number of monks, which he thought was the more hurtful to the state as the empire wanted inhabitants, he forbid their being admitted into the cloister before the age

of fifty. If this law had continued, it had undoubtedly put an end to the monastic life, which has always had zealous defenders.

Other

The beginning of the year was fixed at the first of January, instead of the first of Septem-reformations ber; the use of paper for writing was commanded; the custom of marrying, without the parties having seen each other, was wisely abolished; and these were reformations effected by the czar. A social spirit was diffused with the increase of knowledge, which time alone could bring to perfection.

of

his

Baltic.

When this prince was employing himself in Project the docks of Sardam in Holland to learn the extending art of constructing and navigating ships, he un- empire doubtedly conceived the design of creating a towards the powerful navy, which might make him respected in Europe, and attract commerce into his dominions: but the port of Archangel, upon the White Sea, coming from which it is necessary to double Lapland and Norway, was badly situated for his purpose, since, for seven months in the year, it is inaccessible. The sea of Azoph and the Caspian were still more inconvenient, from their distance, though, in other respects, advantageous. It was therefore essentially necessary to extend his empire towards the Baltic. If he was actuated by ambition to seize from Sweden what she possessed on that coast, it was the ambition of a vast genius, which does not indulge itself in chimeras.

of

By the treaty of Carlowitz with the Turk in Treaty 1699, Peter kept the important conquest of Carlowitz. Azoph, but he had only obtained a truce of two years; however, he got it prolonged to

twenty, and dedicated all his attention to the aggrandizement of his empire on the side of Europe. We shall now see him engaged with another Alexander.

CHAPTER IV.

RISE OF CHARLES XII. KING OF SWEDEN. HE TRI-
UMPHS OVER ALL HIS ENEMIES, AND DETHRONES
AUGUSTUS KING OF POLAND.

of

Charles XII.

Ar the death of Charles XI. king of Sweden, Youth in 1697, his son Charles XII. was only fifteen years of age, and seemed incapable of acquiring reputation on the throne; however, some circumstances which happened while he was very young, gave indications of heroic qualities. Though obstinate and averse from study, yet, when it was recommended as a means of acquiring glory, he got the better of his reluctance. He was particularly fond of reading Quintus Curtius; and one day, when his preceptor asked him what he thought of Alexander? he replied, I think I could wish to resemble him. But he only lived to the age of thirty-two, added the preceptor. Is not that enough when a man has conquered kingdoms? This reply of the young prince was the occasion of his father's saying that he would exceed the great Gustavus. When he ascended the throne, and was freed from the regency of his mother, all hopes of him were dispelled; he gave no ap

Charles XI.

violated

the

plication, and showed he was of an impetuous, haughty temper; but danger very soon unveiled his genius and disposition. Three powerful enemies joined in a league to oppress him; and in that very instant he showed himself a great man. Let us trace from its source a war of eighteen years, which laid waste the north, at the very time the southern countries of Europe were in a flame about the Spanish succession.

Thousands of examples prove that despotism is contrary to the true interest of sovereigns ; privileges of which the following is a very remarkable inLivonians. stance. On the south side of the Gulf of Fin

of the

Grounds

of

the war with

Denmark.

land, Sweden had got possession of Estonia and Livonia; an acquisition which was confirmed by the treaty of Oliva. She left the Livonians their privileges; for new subjects are at first treated with gentleness, but, according to the practice of despots, Charles XI. violated them when he thought it was for his advantage. Patkul, at the head of a deputation from Livonia, having claimed the rights of his country with a bold freedom, was condemned to suffer death; but he escaped, breathing indignation and revenge. After the death of that monarch, he found no difficulty to persuade the king of Poland, then Augustus, elector of Saxony, and afterwards the czar Peter, that the weakness of the young king Charles XII. presented a valuable opportunity of recovering from Sweden those provinces which they had formerly lost.

Frederic IV. king of Denmark, was no less inclined to take advantage of contingencies. The ancient convention of Christian III. with his brother Adolphus, with regard to the duchies of Holstein Gottorp and Sleswick, which