account of this island and its inhabitants, that about the beginning of the Christian era, the language of the ancient Britons was the same, or very similar to that of Gaul, or France at that time, and which is now believed to have been the parent language of the Celtic, Erse, Gaelic, or Welsh; for the intercourse between this island and Gaul, in Casar's time, as well as their relative situations, renders it more than probable, that Britain was peopled from that part of the continent, as both Cæsar and Tacitus affirm and prove, by many strong and conclusive arguments. Though England might be peopled several centuries before the first account we have of it, yet the barbarous condition in which we perceive it to have been, is no more than might rationally be expected. At the time when Julius Cæsar invaded the island, about forty-five years before the Christian era, even husbandry does not seem to have been universally followed. Cattle constituted the chief wealth of numbers of the natives; their towns, were only woods surrounded with a ditch, and barricadoed with trees, where they enclosed their wives, their children, their domestics, and their flocks, in order to preserve them from the attacks of their enemies. The low state of knowledge and refinement to which they had arrived, may be collected from the practice said to be so prevalent, of several brothers and friends having their wives in common. If this practice really existed, it may be considered as a sure test of their barbarity; for though the British lady, in her smart reply to the empress Julia, made as good a defence of it, as could be done, yet it is certain, that no such custom would be allowed in any nation, dat had advanced to the least degree of civilization. But the objects which most excite our attention, in a survey of the state of knowledge among us, before the conquest by the Romans, are the druids. They have been highly spoken of by several writers; so that our conception of these men is attended with a peculiar veneration, and we are ready to look upon them as having been persons of very extraordinary accomplishments. This deception has been heightened by our poets, who have spread a glory round them, and have painted them in a manner, that disposes us to regard them as almost divine. But if we reduce our ideas to the test of sober reason, we shall not find much in the druids, that was peculiarly excellent and valuable. They were the priests of the time, and, like other priests, had address and subtilty enough to keep the people in absolute subjection. They were, likewise, magistrates as well as priests, and had the determination of civil causes; a circumstance which was the natural effect, both of their superior quality, and superior knowledge; for what knowledge then prevailed, was principally confined to them. However, the remains we have of the druids, do not give us a very high opinion of the progress they had made, though, no doubt, they went far beyond the rest of their countrymen, and it is probable, that some few among them might be men of great wisdom. It has been contended by many of the learned, that the druids much resembled the Persian magi, and that their knowledge originally derived from the east. The best principles advanced by the druids, were, that the Deity is one, and infinite, and that his worship ought not to be confined within. vals; that all things derive their origin from heaven; that the soul is immortal; and The Garlic, or Erse tongue, is the name of that dialect of the ancient Celtic, which is spoken in the Scottish Migands. the Galatians or Gauls were so called from the redness of their hair; and the Celtes is supposed to been taken from the Greek word kelatai, used by Homer and Pindar to signify Horsemen. that writing was very little practised by the Britons previous to the coming of St. Augustine; for, although suppositious alphabets of the aboriginal Britons have been produced, yet there is not extant a single manuscript that is written in them. General Valancy, in his Grammar of the Irish tongue, considers the Irish language, to have been a Punic Celtic compound; and that Ireland was once inhabited by a colony of Scythians, which had originally emigrated from the borders of the Euxine and Caspian seas to Spain; that they were instructed in the letters and arts of the Phoenicians, and that finally, they settled in Ireland, about one thousand, or perhaps, only six hundred years before the birth of Christ, carrying with them their own elementary characters. As the ancient Irish alphabet, however, differs from that of any other nation, the general further supposes, that it might have been derived from a colony of Carthagenians, which also settled in their country, about six hundred years previous to the Christian era. Some of the native Irish historians have adopted hypotheses concerning the origin of their nation, language, and letters, which are extravagant in the extreme. Thus, the antiquity of the former has been endeavoured to be magnified by a quotation-from a volume, entitled Leabhuir Drommasnachta, or the book with the white cover; which states, that the three daughters of Cain took possession of Ireland, and that the eldest, who was called Bamba, gave her name to it. In the beginning of the ninth century, the Danes invaded England, and became sole masters of it in about two hundred years, whereby the British language obtained a tincture of the Danish, but this did not make so great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon,* as the revolution of William I. who has a monument of the Norman conquest,† and in imitation of other conquerors, endeavoured to make the language of his own country as generally received as his commands; thus the ancient English became an entire medley of Celtic, Latin, Saxon, Danish, and Norman-French. Since the restoration of learning, innumerable terms have been borrowed from that inexhaustible source the Greek. Italy, Spain, Holland, and Germany, have contributed something, so that the present English may be considered as a selection from all the languages of Europe. The name Saxon originally signified upon the continent, that of a single state; although it subsequently denoted an association of nations; and Ptolemy mentions, that antecedent to 141, a people called Saxones inhabited the territory now called Jutland, and three small islands at the mouth of the Elbe; at present denominated North Strand, Busen, and Heligoland. The Saxon tongue, as it was anciently spoken in Britain, is divided into three periods; namely, first, the British Saxon, which extended from the entry of the Saxons, on the invitation of Vortigern, in 449, until the invasion of the Danes under Ivar, in 867; secondly the Danish Saxon, which extended from the Danish invasion, till that by the Normans, in 1066; and thirdly, the Norman Saxon, which commencing at the Norman accession, was very rude and irregular, and which continued till near the close of the twelfth century. After this, the French tongue prevailed in England. Of the pure Anglo-Saxon, as it was spoken during the first period, there is but one fragment now extant, which occurs in King Alfred's version of Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History. There are several specimens of the Danish Saxon still preserved, especially some translations of the scriptures, finely illuminated; and of the third, there are also many manuscripts scattered through the kingdom. The first SaxO! types were cut by John Daye, under the patronage of archbishop Parker, about the year 1567. The Normans, Northmans, or People from the North, emigrated from Denmark, Sweden, Norway, &c. an spread themselves over Gaul, but particularly Neustria, which name they soon changed to Normandy, STATE OF LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE INVENTION OF PRINTING. BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. "The ancient Roman and Greek orators could only speak to the number of citizens capable of being assembled the reach of their voice; their writings had little effect, because the bulk of the people could not read. Now by the press we can speak to nations; and good books, and well written pamphlets, have great and general "-FRANKLIN. THE most ancient library on record was formed by Osymandyas, King of Egypt, at Memphis. He was a cotemporary of David, King of Israel. At a very early date, the Jews attached collectims of books to most of their synagogues; and we are told that Nehemiah founded a public rary at Jerusalem. Pisistratus, of Athens, was the first who instibaled a public library at Greece; and is supposed to have been the collector of the scattered works which passed under the name of Homer. When we reflect that copies of books were made by the pen alone, and that their circulation, which seems to have been extensive, could not proceed unless the pen supplied copies. From this single fact, we shall be prepared to expect that the eppyists of books must, at all times before the invention of printing, have been very numerous; following a regular business, that afforded full employment, and required experience and skill, well as legible and expeditious writing. At Athens copyists by profession were numer, and gained a steady and considerable livelihood. The booksellers of Athens employed them cipally to copy books of amusement, most of which were exported to the adjoining countries the shores of the Mediterranean, and even to the Greek colonies on the Euxine. In many of these places the business of copying was carried on, al libraries formed. Individuals also employed selves, occasionally, in copying; and there instances recorded of some forming their own aries by copying every book they wished to put them. Not long after the death of Alexander, the love of science and literature passed Athens and Greece generally, to Alexandria, patronised by the Ptolemies, they flourished ely, and, for a considerable period, seemed have concentrated themselves. In speaking of Irish manuscripts, Dr. King states, the Psalter of Tara was written about this period; and there is an ancient alphabet, called an Irish one, now extant, which is said to bare derived its title Babeloth, from the names of certain persons who assisted in forming the Japhetian language. 606, Nov. 6. The 6th day of the Hebrew month Caslew, was observed as a fast, in memory of the Book of Jeremiah, torn and burnt by king Jehoiakim.-JEREMIAH xxxvi. 23. 322, Oct. 2. Died Aristotle. He is the first person, on record, who was possessed of a private library. 300. We possess few facts respecting the price of manuscript books among the ancients. Plato, who seems to have spared no trouble or money in order to enrich his library, especially with philosophical works, paid 100 minæ, equal to £375. for three small treatises by Philolaus, the Pythagorean; and after the death of Speusippus, Plato's disciple, his books were purchased by Aristotle; they were few in number; he paid for them three talents, about £675. 300. The Alexandrian library founded by Ptolemy Soter, who reigned about this period. His successors enlarged it; one of them seized all books imported into Egypt, giving copies of them, made by his orders, and at his expense, to the proprietors. 285, Nov. 2. Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, so memorable as a patron of learning, commenced his reign upon this Julian day. Galen says, in his commentary upon the third of the Epidemics, and upon the first book of the Nature of Man, that Ptolemy Philadelphus gave to the Athenians fifteen talents, with exception from all tribute, and a great convoy of provisions, for the autographs and originals of the tragedies of Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripedes. The first national library founded in Egypt seemed to have been placed under the protection of the divinities, for their statues magnificently adorned this temple, dedicated at once to religion and to literature It was still further embellished by a well-known inscription, for ever grateful to the votary of literature; on the front was engraven "The nourishment of the soul;" or, according to Diodorus, "The medicine of the mind." The Egyptian Ptolemies founded the vast library of Alexandria, which was afterwards the emulative labour of rival monarchs. Under the same roof with this celebrated library, were exten F that children should be educated with the utmost care. But their prodigious veneration for the mistletoe, and the great effects they attributed to it; their opinion that the moon is a sovereign remedy for diseases, with others of their sentiments and customs, shewed a strong superstition; at their prohibiting an intercourse with strangers, if not merely a political law, testified a savageness of manners; and their allowance, nay command, of human sacrifices, carries in it the evidence of the most shocking cruelty. In truth, they were little more than the barbarous priests of a barbarous and unlettered people. Their knowledge is said to have reached to physics, the mathematics, to astronomy, and to medicine; but as it was never committed to writing, it could not be very extensive. Indeed, it chiefly consisted of the arcana of their doctrines and worship, and had a special relation to magic. About forty-five years after Christ, Aulus Plautius was sent over with some Roman forces, who overcame the two kings of the Britons, Togodumnus and Caractacus, when the southern parts of the island were reduced to the form of a Roman province, after which, Agricola subdued the country, as far as Scotland; whereupon, a great number of the Britons retired into the mountains of Wales, into Cornwall, and into the isles and highlands of Scotland, carrying their language with them; and of which only corrupted fragments remain in the Gælic or Erse tongue, the Irish, and the Welsh. Whoever has a strong regard to the cause of freedom, can scarcely avoid being filled with indignation, when he beholds the Romans spreading desolation and slaughter around them; wantonly subduing the nations of the earth, and unjustly depriving them of their liberty. It was their sole intention to obtain power, wealth, and renown, and to subject the world to their yoke. But all this time, they were working the will of heaven, polishing and adorning the places with arts, which they conquered by their arms, diffusing knowledge in general, and paving the way for the Christian knowledge in particular. During the warm contests that subsisted between the Romans and the Britons, when the latter so gloriously, so bravely, though so unsuccessfully, struggled to maintain their independence, little progress could be made in literature. But when the country was peaceably settled into a province, then civility began to spread itself, the sciences to be cultivated, and taste to be refined. Tacitus has informed us, that under the dominion of Agricola, the British nobles studied the Roman learning, and valued themselves on their magnificence and politeness; becoming pleased with what were, in fact, their badges of their slavery. Britain being thus become a Roman province, the legions who resided in the island above two hundred years, undoubtedly disseminated the Latin tongue; and the people being afterwards governed by laws written in Latin, must necessarily create a mixture of languages. During this interval, there were, no doubt, schools of philosophy, what men were celebrated, we are not able to say; no traces of them being now to be found. The confusions that succeeded, destroyed all the remains of learning, and left a blank in this period which cannot be filled up. There is an event belonging to this era, which, besides its own immense importance in other views, deserves to be mentioned as a grand circumstance in the history of knowledge; and that is, the propagation of Christianity in the island. Supposing we reject all idea of its being promulgated by the apostles, or their immediate disciples, it is probable that it was very soon communicated to the Britons. It might be gaining ground, and spreading widely, before it received a civil establishment, as we are informed of many martyrs, who witnessed to the truth under the persecution raised by the emperor Dioclesian. From the days of Constantine, the gospel would, no doubt, be much dified, and generally embraced; for, we are assured, that three British bishops assisted at the council of Arles, A. D. 314, and subscribed the acts of that council. We read, also, that some of them were present at the council of Ariminium, in 359. : Now so illustrious an event, as the propagation of Christianity in this country, could not take place without bringing along with it a mighty change in the state of knowledge. All those who embraced our holy religion, were turned from gross idolatry and absurd superstitions, to the belief and worship of one God; obtained a clear acquaintance with their duty; and had their understandings enlarged with the persuasion and hopes of eternal life. Independently of the glorious spirital consequences derived from the revelation of Jesus, the reception of it was a vast accession of wisdom; as it contributed, in other respects, to expand the minds, and soften the manners of our ancestors. What the particular state of religious knowledge was, it is difficult to ascertain but we find that doctrinal disputes agitated men in those days, as well as in succeeding times. The Roman legions being called home, the Scots and Picts took the opportunity to attack and harrass England; upon which Vortigern, about the year 440, called the Saxons to his assistance, for which he rewarded them with the Isle of Thanet, and the whole county of Kent; but they growing powerful and discontented, distressed the inhabitants of all the country eastward of the Severn. Whatever the state of knowledge might be, before the introduction of the Saxons, it certainly received a great change for the worse, at that period. The repeated invasions of those barbarians, the wars they raised, and the desolations they occasioned, spread a general confusion, dispersed the Britons to the remotest parts of the country, destroyed the monuments of learning, and. left no room for the improvement of the mind. They were in the lowest condition of gnorance, rudeness, and barbarity; their religious worship consisted of the grossest idolatry; and they sacrificed prisoners of war to their gods. Mr. Astle considers that the Saxons arrived in Britain wholly ignorant of letters; and that they adopted the Roman characters which they found in this island, which had already been barbarised from their original Italian form by the British Romans and Roman Britons. Dr. Whittaker, in his History of Manchester, London, 1775, also expports this argument against Humphrey Wanley and Dr. Hicks, who maintained that de Anglo-Saxon alphabet arose out of the gothic. Dr. Johnson thinks, that the Saxons their arrival in Britain, were so illiterate as, most probably, to have been without any alphabet. Perhaps, however, an unison of the two was really the original; and the letters which the Saxons formerly possessed in their own lands, were altered, amended or mproved by the Latin ones which they found in England. Mr. Astle further supposes * 24, Fri, 23. The soldiers of Diocletian, in the morning of this day,demolish the principal church of Nicodemia, admit the sacred volumes to the flames. Upon the next day was published the first general edict of persecution apt the Christians, by which all their religious assemblies in the empire were to be levelled to their foundations, and the church property confiscated and sold to the highest bidder, or granted to rapacious courtiers. This vile and abominable decree was instantly torn from its column by a Christian of rank; he was burnt, or rather roasted by a slow fre, and suffered with the patience of a martyr. |