particles as to be invisible, not only to the naked eye, but even to the eye aided by a powerful lens. More commonly, the gold is seen as little yellow specks, flakes, or grains scattered through the quartz. When the quartz has a crystalline structure, which it often has, little nests of gold, likewise crystalline, may be seen imbedded between the interlacing crystals of the quartz. Where the interstices in the quartz are large, these are sometimes entirely filled up with gold; and not unfrequently irregular holes and crevices seem to have been formed in the quartz by decomposition or rottenness, which have sometimes been subsequently filled with gold. In such cases, the gold often assumes irregular forms, such as melted lead will when poured into water-forms which have given people the idea of the gold having been deposited in a state of fusion, a notion in all probability utterly unfounded. How the gold got into the quartz, is a point at present so uncertain, that no man of science would take upon himself the responsibility of answering the question. The size of the irregular lumps thus entangled in the quartz varies greatly, the largest hitherto known single lump in the world being an Australian one of 2166 ounces weight. It is, however, usually found in small flakes, grains, and dendritic strings, weighing only a few grains. The last time the land of any country on the earth slowly rose from beneath the sea, it must of course have been subject to the degrading and destructive power of the breakers, and of the waves and tides and currents, and all that wearing action we now see going on on our own shores daily and hourly before our eyes. The consequence is, that portions of every rock, large or small, have been broken off, washed and dashed about upon beaches, or under shallow water, rolled into pebbles, pounded into sand, or ground. down into mud and clay. These pebbles, sand, mud, and clay, have been transported by these moving waters often to great distances from their parent site, the largest and heaviest being generally removed the least distance, but the finer and lighter particles swept sometimes tens, sometimes hundreds of miles away from the rock they were first broken off. Such is the origin of all the mud, clay, sand, gravel, and other loose and incoherent materials we so commonly find beneath the surface in all countries when we dig below the soil, interposed between it and the main body of the solid rock* below. Sometimes these accumulations are entirely wanting, even over large spaces; sometimes they are but a few inches thick, often but a few feet; but occasionally they occur in masses 100 or 150 feet in thickness. They are disseminated with great irregularity, sometimes lying on the tops, or resting on the sides of hills of considerable elevation; but most frequently we find them in the valleys and in the lowest levels of a country, whither moving water would have, of course, the greatest tendency to sweep them.

* By rock here, we mean any large regularly formed mass of earthy matter, whether it be hard or soft.

Now, whenever the moving waters of the sea, by which these drift-materials were thus formed and deposited, attacked rock containing gold, it would of course break off lumps of it, just as of any other rock, and equally wash, roll, and knock it about, and thus break it up into smaller fragments, round it into pebbles, and grind it into sand. In this way, much of the gold would be knocked out of the rock, and much water-worn gold accumulated, or water-worn fragments of gold and quartz together.

From this point of time, however, there is a remarkable difference observable in the action of the water on the gold, and on rock which contains no gold. All kinds of rock, or earth, or stone, at all events all the common kinds, are pretty nearly of the same specific gravity -that is to say, of the same weight, bulk for bulk. Chalk, clay, limestone, compact sandstone, granite, marble, basalt, have all specific gravities varying from 2 to 3-that is to say, they are twice or thrice the weight of their bulk of water. Pure gold, however, has a specific gravity of 19, or is nineteen times as heavy as its bulk of water; and the most impure ore of gold that occurs in nature has at least a specific gravity of 12 or 15. Gold, then, is about six or seven times as heavy as quartz, or any other stone it is likely to be associated with. The consequence of this is, that moving water has at least seven times less power over it—less power to move it along, either suspended in the water or rolling along its bed.* When the drift, therefore, was formed, vast quantities of stone might be removed to great distances, while the gold was left behind, not far from its native site. All the large lumps of gold will certainly be but little removed, as also all the large lumps of quartz heavily freighted with gold. Grains of gold and small lumps may be carried further, while scale-gold and fine dust, especially if flat and thin, may be carried to very considerable distances.

GOLD-FEVER IN CALIFORNIA.

Let us now see into what wild paroxysms of excitement and delight, alternating with periods of disappointment and misery, the discovery of gold can lead vast masses of men. And let us begin with California-the auriferous region which was the first of the modern discoveries. While yet its riches were unknown, this region belonged to Mexico, and was known as Upper California, to distinguish it from the peninsula, called Lower California. This last still belongs to Mexico; but, in 1848, Upper California was ceded to the United States, and in 1850 became the state of California.

Separated from the Pacific Ocean by a breadth of 150 miles, there runs along this country the range of the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy

* We shall see this more clearly, perhaps, when we reflect, that stone suspended in water loses one-third of its weight, but that gold suspended in water loses only onenineteenth of its weight.

Mountains. Westward of this range, we find ourselves with warm skies overhead, green lands around, and forests, lakes, and plains, valleys and hills blending their varied beauties in the landscape; busy towns and crowded sea-ports studding the shores, the blue Pacific beyond, and deeply laden ships passing in and out of the harbours. At the northern extremity, the Rio Sacramento takes its rise among the Snowy Mountains, and pouring its fertilising waters along a wide valley for 250 miles, forms a junction with the San Joachin, which flows an equal distance from an opposite direction; and these two rivers, having thus irrigated an unbroken valley 500 miles in length, pour their united streams to San Francisco, and there roll into a harbour which, some writers say, would shelter the united fleets of Europe.

Numerous rivers pour down from among the snowy peaks of the Sierra Nevada into the Sacramento and San Joachin. Between these and the sea lies a broken range of less elevated hills, which cradle among their summits the sources of other streams that flow directly towards the shore, and discharge their tribute into the sea, at intervals along the whole coast. The region is therefore profusely watered, and the richness of the soil in some of the interior valleys is not surpassed by any in South America.

Possessed for ages by a sparse population of Indians, California was made known to Europe by Hernan Cortez in 1530, and gradually fell under the dominion of Spain. Three centuries later, the United States annexed the northern half of the country; and then California revived from a sluggish state into which it had sunk under Spanish rule. Industry was again awake; old villages were re-tenanted; new ones were built; the wasted lands were covered with fresh cultivation; towns that had fallen to ruin, with grassy streets and harbours wholly silent, became full of active life; and indeed the entire region presented the appearance of a country reviving from a long and lethargic apathy to new energy and prosperity. The means of reaching California by land were developed by degrees. About 1810, James Pursley discovered a passage across the Rocky Mountains from Platte River to Santa Fé. This became a regular caravan route about 1824. In 1845, Captain Fremont struck a new path across the mountains, farther north, so as to reach the Sacramento. The travelling arrangements were year by year improved, until, in 1869, a railway was opened across the whole breadth of the American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

The discovery of gold in this region was mainly due to Captain Sutter, an indefatigable man, who had formed a settlement high up the Sacramento river. In September 1847, he erected a water-mill in a spot more than a thousand feet above the level of the lower valley. His friend, Mr Marshall, was engaged in superintending an alteration in it, and Captain Sutter was sitting one afternoon in his own room writing. Suddenly Marshall rushed in with such excitement

in his face, that his friend confesses to have cast an anxious eye at his rifle. His sudden appearance was sufficiently curious; but Sutter thought him mad when he cried out that he had made a discovery which would pour into their coffers millions and millions of dollars with little labour. I frankly own,' he says, 'that when I heard this I thought something had touched Marshall's brain, when suddenly all my misgivings were put an end to by his flinging on the table a handful of scales of pure virgin gold. I was fairly thunder-struck.' It was explained that, while widening the channel that had been made too narrow to allow the mill-wheel to work properly, a mass of sand and gravel was thrown up by the excavators. Glittering in this Mr Marshall noticed what he thought to be an opal-a clear transparent stone common in California. This was a scale of pure gold, and the first idea of the discoverer was, that some Indian tribe or ancient possessors of the land had buried a treasure. Examination, however, shewed the whole soil to teem with the precious metal; and then mounting a horse, he rode down to carry the intelligence to his partner. To none but him did he tell the story of his discovery, and they two agreed to maintain secret the rich reward. Proceeding together to the spot, they picked up a quantity of the scales; and with nothing but a small knife, Captain Sutter extracted from a little hollow in the rock a solid mass of gold weighing an ounce and a half. But the attempt to conceal this valuable revelation was not successful. An artful Kentuckian labourer observing the eager looks of the two searchers, followed and imitated them, picking up several flakes of gold. Gradually the report spread, and as the would-be monopolists returned towards the mill, a crowd met them holding out flakes of gold, and shouting with joy. Mr Marshall sought to laugh them out of the idea, and pretended the metal was of little value; but an Indian who had long worked elsewhere in a mine of the costly metal, cried: 'Oro! oro!' and 'Gold! gold!' was shouted in a lively chorus by the delighted multitude. This is the account we have from Captain Sutter himself. In other narratives, the history of the discovery assumes many different forms and colours. A squatter constructing a shanty found gold in the stones employed to build it; a traveller traversing a stream fell into the water, and the precious dust glittered in the mud adhering to his clothes; a hunter in chase of the elk lay down to sleep in a cavern shining on all sides with scales of gold--these and other accounts have been promulgated. The rumour was spread abroad, and the people of San Francisco began to leave the town and swarm to the diggings.' A large body of Mormon emigrants had just entered California through the south pass of the Rocky Mountains; they immediately encamped near Sutter's Mill, and within a few days more than 1200 men were at work, with buckets, baskets, shovels, spades, and sheets of canvas, seeking for gold in the sand of the south fork of the Rio des los Americanos.

Perhaps in no other country, at any period of its history, has so sudden and wonderful a revolution taken place as that which followed this discovery: as well over the Rocky Mountains as by sea, ceaseless arrivals from all quarters of the globe swelled the population (previously only 25,000 souls). The towns on the coast were soon almost wholly deserted, and the few residents that remained made ample fortunes by levying exorbitant sums for the entertainment and supply of the travellers who came to the port. Vessels in the harbour were deserted; the harvest was at first unreaped; and the industry of the country suddenly stopped, as though struck by a universal paralysis, while the flood of population contracted and poured into the valley of the Sacramento. Along the borders of the rivers, and in the ravines of the wild hilly country, camps were formed, and tents, bowers, mud huts, and rudely erected sheds, multiplied and covered the ground. Still, hundreds slept in the open air, and these hundreds swelled to thousands as each mail carried to the United States more glowing accounts of the gold.

A few instances of the incidental features of society after the spread of the mania among the adventurers in search of wealth may neither be out of place nor unentertaining.

In May 1848, the negro waiter at the San Francisco Hotel, before the mania had reached its greatest height, refused to serve his master at the rate of less than ten dollars, or about two pounds a day. But the universal rage was so strong, that the 'mineral yellow fever,' as it was termed, left San Francisco at first almost wholly deserted; and at the same season a large fleet of merchant-vessels lay helpless and abandoned, some partially, others wholly deserted. One ship from the Sandwich Islands was left with no one but its captain on board; from another the captain started with all his crew, replying to an observation on his flagrant conduct, that the cables and anchors would wear well till his return, and that as every one was too busy to plunder, he ran no risk by deserting his duty. The Star and Californian newspapers, published at San Francisco, ceased appearing, as the whole staff, from the editor to the errandboy, had gone to dig for gold; and among the most active workers in the valley was the 'attorney-general to the king of the Sandwich Islands. The influence of this wonderful excitement extended all over the world, but was felt most powerfully in the neighbouring regions of Oregon and Mexico. There, during the early period of the excitement, the public roads-and especially the nearest way over the hills-were crowded with anxious travellers, each face bent towards the ridges of hills dividing their adopted country from the gold regions. Whole towns and villages were left peopled by scarcely any other than women, while the men were devoutly on the pilgrims' path to the shrine of mighty Mammon.

The population that was suddenly gathered together in the valley of the Sacramento was among the most motley and heterogeneous