489-404), degraded philosophy into mere dialectic artifices, in order to utilize the masses both politically and materially for their own advantage. Their greatest

opponent, though himself educated in their art, was Socrates (B. C. 469-399), a contemporary of Hippocrates, and the profound creator of a purer conception of morality, who fell a victim to Athenian intolerance and persecution. The pupils of Socrates, Euclides of Megara (about B. C. 400), and Phadon of Eretria, in Euboea, discarded completely the perceptions of the senses, and allowed them no existence whatever. Aristippus of Cyrene (B. C. 435), however, was the founder of the Cyrenaic School, which rejected all systems of morals and declared pleasure the highest and only good. On the other hand, Antisthenes of Athens (born B C. 444) preached absolute contempt for riches, the vanities of this world, and for science itself, and thus became the founder of the School of Cynics, whose best known member was his pupil, Diogenes (B. C. 414-324).

In concluding this section it may be remarked that in Greece it was not entirely devoid of danger to be possessed of an eminent mind, and particularly to teach in opposition to the superstition and credulity of the masses and the prejudices and authority of the priests. As early as B. C. 432, on motion of Diopeithes, a special paragraph against those who denied God, and studied nature, was incorporated in the legal code of Athens.

3. SCHOOLS OF THE ASCLEPIADE AND GYMNASTS.

From societies founded by Esculapius, or rather from medical associations simply named after him, proceeded those medical guilds or "faculties" (to explain ancient economy by our own), which are distinguished as the schools of the Asclepiada. These were devoted to medical instruction and practice, and divided their doctrines into exoteric and esoteric Indeed medicine at this period was rather a faculty united with the individual and maintained as a secret, than a science possessed of fixed rules and diffused by writings. It was chiefly a system bequeathed immediately from father to son or to pupil; an art preserved and transmitted by oral instruction from man to man.—In these schools of the Asclepiada (as in the later schools of the Jews and the Arabians, and the Christian Cathredal schools) instruction in medicine began at an early age (10-12 years), and was imparted not. solely to those who belonged by birth to the family of a physician, but also to others who were merely adopted, in order that they might select a teacher from this family, who instructed them in return for a certain honorarium. At the conclusion of their course of instruction the pupils were compelled to take, and subscribe to, an oath, the words of which we here introduce as the oldest written monument of Grecian medicine :

"I swear by Apollo, the physician, by Esculapius, by Hygeia, Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and stipulation, to reckon him who teaches me this art equally dear to me as my parents; to share my substance with him and relieve his necessities, if required; to

1. The Sophists were the first teachers in

Greece who imparted instruction for money. Their fees were often very high. Gorgias demanded 190 minae (about $3,350) from each pupil. Yet it was regarded as a disgrace that they took pay for instruction; and, as the same thing was done by teachers of medicine, it is probable that the latter did not belong to the higher classes of Grecian freemen.

look upon his offspring on the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of this art to my own sons, to those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to no others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of of my patients; and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous; I will give no deadly medicine to any one, if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give a woman a pessary to produce an abortion.1 With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practise my art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further, from the seduction of females and males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such things should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this oath inviolate, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of my art, respected by all men at all times! But, should I trespass and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot!"

Such schools of the Asclepiadæ existed in Rhodes, Crotona in lower Italy, and Cyrene, now Barca, on the northern coast of Africa. The most celebrated, however, were those of Cnidos in Asia Minor, and Cos (now Stanchio), one of the Sporades.

The school of Cnidos (in Caria) is said to have laid especial weight upon the subjective statements of the sick, the relation of the symptoms to individual parts of the body and the use of active remedies, especially drastics (coccum Gnidium, the berries of the Daphne Gnidium). Less attention was devoted to diet. It cultivated the science of diagnostics and recognized some auscultatory signs, e. g. the pleuritic friction sound (!), and satisfactorily distinguished many diseases, such as phthisis, typhus, diseases of the urinary bladder, the kidneys, the bile etc. The Cnidians also performed even major operations, like trepanning the ribs, excision of the kidneys (recently revived as something new!) etc., and though always empirics, they were bold operators. In opposition to the physicians of Cos, however, they discarded venesection. The Cnidian Sentences' are supposed

1. Latin neque simili ratione mulieri pessum subdititium ad foetum corrumpendum exhibebo."

2. There were guild-schools for the bards also at this period. With regard to these, Mæhly (Geschichte der antiken Lit.) says: "But how were these bards educated? By family and oral traditions. These bard-schools represented simply an enlarged family union, which, perhaps, felt itself entwined by the ethical bond of common duties. That a definite technique, with fixed rules, was thus bequeathed, is clear." The same thing, mutatis mutandis, is doubtless true, also, for the contemporary schools of the Asclepiade. In the latter, of course, Hippocrates filled the place of Homer.

3. The "Cnidian Sentences" was probably a collection of aphorisms culled from the votive tablets of the temple of Esculapius, at Cnidos. Euryphon, a senior contemporary of the great Hippocrates, is said to have been the compiler. They