nary assiduity and wisdom, that he not only maintained a powerful and well disciplined and equipped army always in readiness for the defence of his greatly extended dominions, but he also left his country without debt and with a large treasure to his successor.

On the accession of Frederick the Great in 1740 the area of his dominions was no more than 2,920 German miles, or about 50,000 geographical square miles. By his conquests and the first partition of Poland he added an area equal to more than half his hereditary dominions to his kingdom. The whole of his population at his death, after a reign of forty-six years, amounted to 6,943,562 inhabitants. By the second and third partitions of Poland, by the acquisitions from Saxony and the west of the Rhine, the area of the whole kingdom has been extended over 5,101 German square miles, or 83,000 geographical square miles, with now more than 17,000,000 inhabitants. Of these about 10,450,000 are Evangelic Lutherans, 6,400,000 Catholics, and 221,000 Jews, and a few Mormonites and Greeks.

Frederick William II., in consequence of his 'wars, left at his death in 1797 a debt of about £9,750,000 to be provided for by his successor Frederick William III. The doubtful neutrality of the latter provoked Napoleon, who so thoroughly changed military tactics as to render even the discipline and system of Frederick the Great obsolete. The French army conquered all the dominions and fortresses of Prussia, and exacted enormous sums from the king on restoring him to little more than half the dominions that he had ruled over before the war. This degradation

was amply repaired by the congress of Vienna. In fact, no prince was so greatly benefited as the king of Prussia by the new map of Europe as settled by that assembly. The Government in the meantime persevered in a wise course of financial economy, and in 1815 the debt of Prussia only amounted to about 200 millions of thalers, or £30,000,000 sterling. In 1838 it was reduced to about £18,000,000, which included £2,000,000 bills paying no. interest but circulating as currency.

Our limits will not allow us to introduce the constitution of the land banks (landcredit-vereine) instituted by Frederick the Great, nor of the Germanic union of customs formed in 1833-4 under the late king. Their importance would each require an article. The leading principle of the union of customs was to remove all the fiscal barriers which surrounded each German state. This has been thoroughly and successfully effected, and one general frontier surrounds not only each state but all Germany, except Hanover,

Wertemburg, and Mecklenburg; from the Baltic to Bohemia and Switzerland; from the frontiers of France, Belgium, and Holland, to those of Russia, there is no interruption of commerce by fiscal authority.

In consequence of the rebellion of 1848 the debt which was reduced to 198,642,000 thalers, or less than £35,000,000 sterling, has been increased by loans, up to 1855, to 242,770,000 thalers, or £36,410,000 sterling. This debt is, however, comparatively unimportant. The total revenue for 1855 was 111,827,785 thalers, the expenditure, includ ing interest on the debt, amounted to nearly an equal sum. With a numerous, industrious, and frugal population and great resources, no country is more prepared for war than Prussia. But her maxim is neutrality, defensive and not aggressive. With the excep tion of his first war even Frederick the Great fought on the defensive.

The army of Prussia was thoroughly reor ganised after the victories and conquests of the kingdom by Napoleon. In Austria and France the conscription and enlistment furnishes men for the army. In Prussia there is no enlistment or impressment, and Prussia has twice within a hundred years furnished models for European armies. The old system of Frederick has nearly disappeared with the serfage of the people. The new system may be attributed to generals and officers, of great military and scientific ability, to Scharnhorst, Blucher, Boyen, Clausnitz, Gneisenau, Grollmann, and York. Every Prussian without distinction is bound to serve between the age of twenty to twenty-five in the army, as a private soldier in the ranks for a period of three years, exempting only those from obvious incapacity and in a very few cases professional men. On attaining the age of twenty-six years the soldier retires until he is thirty-two years, into the first ban of the land wehr (land watch) or real army of the country, formed of men who have served for three years, recruited by the discharge of one-third every year from the army of primary instruction, and the first is replaced every spring out of the whole population which has attained twenty years.

The first bans of the landwehr is called out for field exercise fourteen to twenty-eight days each year; also for monthly drills.

After the age of thirty-two those of the first ban are turned over to the second ban of landwehr for garrison instead of field duty. After the age of forty-nine the soldier of the second ban is turned over to the land sturm, which does local duty, and which is liable only to serve in the levy en masse.

The whole male population of Prussia is thus transformed into one vast camp, one formidable army, in which every man knows his regiment, company, and squad, and the Prussian system is now general over all Germany excepting in the Austrian states.

In Prussia soldiers are only paid when they are embodied, a cheap system apparently, but in reality the most expensive in Europe. A lad of twenty, who has not learned his business or art, is drawn away for three years from his labour; and afterwards he is for fourteen or twenty-eight days each year withdrawn from his industrious employment and from the productive labour of the country. A man from twenty to sixty-four years in Prussia gives 2079 days to military and unproductive service, and for a lesser proportion of time those who do not live to the age of sixty-four years. This enormous burden on the whole industry of the country is incalculable, yet it is patiently endured. The Prussian standing army was in 1855 composed of 148,300 infantry, guards, and chasseurs, 30,515 cavalry, 19,000 artillery, 5,100 pioneers, total, 212,915. Landwehr, first ban, infantry, 110.000; cavalry, 21,400; artillery, 22,000; pioneers 4,000; in all 157,400 men. Total of the second ban was 115,000 men. The whole army amounted to 524,915. The war establishment in 1849 amounted to 512,800, exclusive of about 60,000 in garrison. The peace establishment may be estimated at about 220,000 men, exclusive of the secondban of the landwehr.

The Prussian fortresses are constructed with extraordinary strength and scientific ingenuity. Altogether, considering her for midable army and her prosperous financial condition, there is no country in Europe better prepared for war than Prussia, we say this without any admiration of her recent policy. AUSTRIA.-The Austrian empire, with a population of about 38,000,000 and an extensive fertile region, has unfortunately a miserable revenue, the whole of which did not in 1849-50 exceed £15,000,000 sterling; while the expenses of the army alone was far more than that amount, and the total expenditure about £25,000,000. A much greater amount might be levied with little oppression by a sound financial system. £50,000,000 exclusive of about £25,000,000, including Poor's and other local rates, have been annually levied, before the present war, by the taxes on 20,000,000 of inhabitants in Great Britain. During the last year we levied in the United Kingdom more than £72,000,000. On 38,000,000 of inhabitants in the Austrian dominions £60,000,000 might be levied with

far less oppression by an equal adjustment of her present financial and commercial system, which is about the worst in Europe. The revenue of Austria in 1854 was £24,500,000, the expenditure £38,700,000. The debt has been increased to £186,000,000 sterling.

The Austrian army for 1856 is composed of— Etat major and guard 1,600 men; infantry 520,000; cavalry 74,000; artillery 51,300; engineers and pioneers 40,000; or a total of 684,900 men. The army in 1847 amounted to 409,397 of all ranks. In June 1848 Austria had 706,708 men under arms.

The Austrian navy in 1854 consisted of 6 frigates carrying 215 guns, 5 corvettes 100 guns, 7 brigs 112 guns, 10 steam ships and 4 small vessels. galleys and gun-boats, carrying 275 guns, total, 102 vessels, 752 guns.

TURKEY.-The finances of Turkey can only be cursorily examined. The population of Turkey in Europe, including the Danubian principalities, according to Baron Redan, amounts to 15,500,000 inhabitants; of the possessions in Asia, 16,050,000; of Africa, which includes Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, 5,050,000; altogether 36,600,000. Of this population there were in Europe Christians (Greeks) 11,370,000, Catholics 260,000, Jews 70,000, Mussulmans 3,800,000. In Asia 12,950,000 Mussulmans, 2,360,000 Greek and Armenian Christians, 640 Catholics, 100,000 Jews. In Africa 5,050,000 Mussulmans; or in all 21,800,000 Mussulmans, 14,630,000. Christians, and 170,000 Jews.

M. Ubicini, a good authority, estimates thereceipts of the treasury, including tributes from Egypt and the principalities, at 731,900,000 piastres, 168,110,000 francs, or £6,724,400, and the expenditure at 751,900,000 piastres. = 173,050,000 francs, or £6,740,000. The tribute from Egypt is 30.000,000 piastres, or £278,000 sterling. This is secured to France and England as a guarantee for the interest of the two loans made, since the war, by the Porte.

The Turkish army, since the massacre by the late sultan of the whole dangerous body of janizaries, is disciplined, the infantry and cavalry on the French system, the artillery on the Prussian. There is one chief military college and six other schools. The army is divided into the regulars, the reserve, the auxiliary contingents from Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, the Danubian provinces, Bosnia, and upper Albania, and the irregular volunteer corps.

In 1855 the number of regular infantry was 100,000 men; cavalry, 17,280; artillery, 13,000; engineers, 1,600; detached corps, 14,000; gendarmerie, 30,000; total regular

or active army, 178,680; reserve, 125,000; auxiliary contingent, 116,000; irregulars, 61,000; or a total armed force of 474,360 men. It is estimated that the whole Turkish force in the field and in fortresses in 1855, amounted to 300,000 men. But many of these troops, especially the irregulars, were exceed ingly defective during the Crimean campaign; nor can the Danubian contingents ever be relied on.

Christians were formerly excluded from the Turkish army unless they embraced Islamism; but now they are admitted on having paid the karadz, or capitation tax. Some of the most valorous and greatest Turkish generals were renegade Christians, and many were Christian slaves brought up as Mohamedans.

The Turkish navy lost its prestige after the destructive battle of Navarino.

The Kapudan Pacha is minister of marine, with a council of admirals. The fleet is commanded by one Kapudan Pacha, five admirals, three vice-admirals, and eight rear-admirals. At the commencement of the war the Turkish navy consisted of seventy ships, with about 34,000 seamen and 4,000 marines. There were two ships of the line of 120 to 130 guns; four of 74 to 90 guns; ten frigates of 40 to 60 guns; six steam frigates, 450 to 800 horsepower; and forty-eight corvettes and smaller vessels. Of the above there were seven frigates, one steam frigate, two corvettes, two transports, and one gun-boat, barbarously destroyed by the Russians at Sinope. The Egyptian fleet may, to a certain extent, be considered an auxiliary to that of Turkey.

FRANCE. Considering the revolution of 1848, and many of its consequences, the firm and intelligent government of the present Emperor has alone preserved industry, trade, and financial credit, maintained domestic tranquillity, provided for the expenses of a great war, equipped fed and paid, a powerful army and navy.

The budget of the 5th May, 1855, states the revenue, from all sources, at 1,601,586,722 francs; the expenditure, including interest of the debt, at 1,598,286,732 francs, leaving a surplus of 3,300,204 francs. The debt in 1848 amounted to 6,469,429,070 francs; in 1853 to 6,061,980,354; but two loans have been raised since then with extraordinary facility, and France honourably fulfils all her fiscal obligations.

By the exposé des motifs of the budget presented to the legislature on 4th March for the year 1856, the receipts are stated or estimated at 1,710,474,512 francs, or £68,418,980 sterling. The expenditure, 1,695,057,164 francs, or £67,801,786 sterling. The interest on the

debt has been increased by the last and former loan, 52,762,200 francs, or £2,110,400 sterling.

The army of France, since the days of Charles VII. and Louis XI., has always been distinguished for its bravery and heroism, and especially under Francis I., Henry IV., Louis XIV., the Revolution, the Consulate, and the Empire. The military genius of the Condés, Turennes, Saxes, Villars, Vaubans, and of the generals of the revolutionary and imperial wars, are immortalized. In fact, considered under any government, no country is more famous in history than France, for great warriors, statesmen, historians, philosophers, and men distinguished in arts and sciences.

Napoleon the Great was the personification of French military skill, discipline, and command. But he never had a more powerful or disciplined, never so well armed and equip. ped an army as that of France at the present time. Nor let the world entertain the fallacy that Napoleon III. is not a man of military and scientific acquirements and abilities. His education was not only historical and philosophic, but especially scientific. In fact, while an exile in Switzerland, as an officer in the Swiss artillery, he so assiduously studied and attended to the discipline of his profession, that both Louis Philippe and the Emperor of Austria, became alarmed at his abilities and position, that they compelled the Swiss to banish him from their country,—a fatal policy for the House of Orleans. It rivetted the affections of the whole French army on the nephew and legitimate heir of Napoleon the Great.

The superior organisation, intelligence, and discipline of the French army, its ord nance, and its commissariat, is accounted for by the excellence of the military schools of France, and the remarkable course of teaching, training, and varied service of all those who are on the staff, or etat major.

The details of this education, training and service, far exceed our possible limits, but we will endeavour to present a succinct description of the military organization of

in any part of France, by telegraph. In the British war department, called the Horse Guards, with its divided command with the Colonial Office; with a distinct war secretary at the Horse Guards, as well as a commanderin-chief, with the master general of the ordnance, with the commissariat department of the treasury, and with a separate medical department, there has ever been the conflicting and unfortunate mismanagement to which we may attribute, chiefly, the great loss of life by defective command or deficient provisions, shelter, and the necessary hospital and medical arrangements. We find the recent changes have caused very imperfect administrative improvement.

In France all these are united in the department of the minister of war, who, under the Emperor, is the absolute chief in all military affairs. The sections of this depart ment are arranged with scientific and even mathematical accuracy. They are divided

into directions and committees. The first direction takes cognizance of all personal affairs, and is divided into seven offices. The second, divided into two sections, reports in detail, all matters connected with artillery, to the minister of war. The third, also divided into two sections, is intrusted with the duties and instructions of engineers. The fourth, divided into five bureaux, embraces all the administration of the army. The fifth, divided into four bureaux, takes cognizance of the military affairs of Algeria. The sixth takes into consideration-and reports on the-circumstances of the war depôts, and the seventh draws up and prepares all army

accounts.

The committees consist of a certain number of staff officers:—the first, the committee of the general staff; second, infantry; third, cavalry; fourth, artillery; fifth, fortifications; sixth, public military works; seventh, medical, surgery, drugs, &c., and the veterinary department of the cavalry.

The etat-major, or staff of the army, consists of 4 marshals of France, 87 generals of division, and 165 brigadiers general; besides which, there are 79 generals and 163 brigadier generals in reserve, or de facto, in retirement; 72 generals of division, and 70 brigadiers general, have been pensioned: in fact, the reserved and the pensioned may be said to have been got rid of, as inefficient or superannuated.

There is also a corps d' etât-major which contains 35 colonels, 35 lieutenant-colonels, 104 chiefs of squadrons, 250 captains, and 52 lieutenants. It is from this well-trained corps that all adjutants of the army, and afterwards those of the general staff, are selected.

Besides these, there is a staff for general inspection; and a division of the corps of the etât-major supervises the training in various branches of military education.

The general staff of the fortresses in France includes 155 town commandants, 13 town majors, 140 adjutants, and 25 secretaries of divisions.

The general artillery staff consists of 24 divisions, 138 staff officers, 345 captains, and 20 lieutenants; and the general engineers staff of 16 divisions, 154 staff officers, 312 captains, and 5 lieutenants.

The active force of the French army consists of the Cent Guards, instituted 24th March, 1854, composed of 137 mounted men. The Guards, instituted in May, 1854, as a revival of the Old Imperial Guard, is composed of 2 regiments of grenadiers, 4 battalions of infantry, and I regiment of Zouaves, 2 battalions. The 2nd brigade of the infantry of the Guards consists of two regiments of voltigeurs, and 1 battalion of foot chasseurs; 3rd a brigade of cavalry; a regiment of foot gendarmerie; a regiment of 12 batteries of artillery, I division of depôt artillery, 1 regiment of 6 batteries, and i troop of horse-artillery in depôt; 2 companys and 1 squadron of engineers.

The gendarmerie consist of horse and foot. of 1 regiment of the Guard, 2,000 men. There are 25 regiments of gendarmerie in the provinces, and 5 in the colonies; 2 of cavalry in Paris, and 3 other battalions, amounting altogether to 27,579 men.

The infantry consists of 100 regiments, amounting to 323,300 men; 20 battalions of chasseurs, 25,760; the Zouaves 29 battalions, 22,500. The infantry, on its present footing, may be estimated at 400,000.

The cavalry consists of 62 regiments, with 83,000 horses and 87,000 men.

The artillery of 17 regiments, with about 200 batteries and 61,000 men, inclusive of labourers and others.

The engineers, including labourers and non-combatants, number 9,000 men.

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Miscellaneous troops, 10,000 men. The total force of the French army may estimated at 600,000 men, exclusive of National Guard, which may at all times be called out to preserve public tranquillity, and even for the defence of the country from foreign invasion. The latter force might readily be armed for immediate service. Looking, therefore, at the compact territory of France, with her large active and intelligent population; their fertility of resources, and their ingenuity and skill, we believe there is no military nation in Europe so formidable.

The French navy, which was nearly anni

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In 1854 the French fleet consisted of 53 ships of the line of 80 to 120 guns, carrying 5,096 cannon; of these 13 had screw power; 57 frigates, carrying 3,355 cannons; 35 corvettes, 368 guns; 100 light ships, 108 guns; 1 screw frigate; 2 screw vettes; screw light ship; 7 steam paddle ships of the line; 20 frigates; 30 corvettes; 64 smaller ships, having, together, 32,550 horse-power. Besides these, there are some splendid ships now building, such is the military and naval power of France.

GREAT BRITAIN.-We now come to examine the financial and military and naval power of the United Kingdom. Space renders it necessary that our statement must be brief.

Our public debt is nearly equal to that of all Europe. It is, however, chiefly due to ourselves; and events have proved that, under a liberal commercial system and a more equitable adjustment of taxation, we have been able to provide £28,000,000 annually to pay the interest of that debt, and to raise a war expenditure without the nation experiencing any distress. The revenue of the United Kingdom, from all sources, exclusive of the war loans, amounted for the years ending December, 1855, to £63,364,603. The expenditure, which was £52,000,000 before the war, has increased to £84,505,788 in the year ending December, 1855. The deficit, £21,141,183, has been provided for by loans, exchequer, and deficiency bills.

Taking into consideration that there is no duty or tax on any article the essential food of man, that there are no duties on the chief materials which employ the people in manufactures, no export duties; that on articles of luxury the duties are purely fiscal; the increased public taxation required by the war expenses has been cheerfully paid by the people, whose representatives in Parliament have voted, for the last and present year, the estimates without a division, and with the unanimous consent of Tories, Whigs, Conservatives, and Radicals. The commerce and navigation of the country has continued to prosper.

In 1830 the declared real value of all British manufactures exported from the United Kingdom, was £37,691,362. In 1840, £51,366,956. In 1845, after abolishing the corn duties, and duties on all essential articles of food and raw materials, and the excise on glass, bricks, and on about 800 articles imported from abroad, the value of exports was £74,548,232, while the revenue from excise and customs had not diminished. The real value of the exports of British industry for 1855 (ten years later), although we have only the accounts for the first eleven months (£86,847,280), may be computed at least to amount to £94,000,000.

This extraordinary increase of one great element of British wealth and power, will sufficiently account for the healthy financial condition of the United Kingdom, and the enthusiasm of Her Majesty's subjects in carrying on a war until an honourable and dignified peace be concluded.

The military and naval forces of the British empire, according to the estimates just presented to Parliament, and the official list, will appear as follows, viz. ;—

The number of forces voted for 1856-7, are stated in the army estimates at 246,716 men, exclusive of those serving in India and paid by the East India Company. But the esti mates ordered, 8th February, and presented to the House of Commons on the 5th March, are so obscure and entangled that it is impossible to state the really effective military force of the United Kingdom. In no department of Government is there, in fact, such impenetrable mist as in the army estimates. With the exception of one momentous item, the army and ordnance expenditure amounts, for the effective service, in 1856-7, to £32,758,280. In 1855-6 it was £26,476,000. The cost of the non-effective service in 1855-6, was £2,196,914, in 1856-7, the estimate is £2,240,224.

The militia of the United Kingdom has been fixed at 120,950, exclusive of the yeomanry. But the number actually embodied is far under this amount. It is but justice to say, that the embodied militia are generally equal to the line, and have been ready to embark if required for service abroad. The greatest credit is, without exception, due to officers and men.

The yeomanry, of which England may be as proud as in the days of Agincourt, includes 258 officers and 14,486 admirably equipped

and mounted men.

The royal army in the East Indies includes 25 infantry and 5 cavalry regiments, or 31,000. There are also in the pay of the