hired female mourners who sang næniæ, verses containing the praises of the deceased: next were carried the waxen figures, usually kept, as we have before said. (§ 432), in the atrium", the right of having which, some say, is meant by the term jus imaginum (§ 132), and mixed with them a crowd of mummers and maskers, representing in dumb show the actions, and even repeating and mimicking the expressions and voice of the deceased and of his ancestors: these were followed by the enfranchised slaves and freedmen7 preceding the corpse, surrounded by the friends and relatives in funeral dresses, and borne by them on an open bier, lectica, feretrum3, torus: according to some, the friends and relatives came next after the images. Other paraphernalia are mentioned, such as crowns won by the deceased, the plans of cities he had conquered, etc. 1) Hor. Ep. 1, 1, 5 : “ Dum ficus prima calorque Designatorem decorat lictoribus atris." 2) Cf. Cic. ad Att. 4, 2; de Legg. 2, 24. 3) Cf. Gell. 20, 2; Hor. Sat. 1, 6, 43; Sen. de morte Claudii: "Et erat omnium formosissimum (funus), et impensa cura plenum, ut scires deum efferri; tibicinum, cornicinum omnisque generis æneatorum (al. senatorum) tanta turba, tantus conventus, ut etiam Claudius audire posset." On the use of the trumpet at funerals, see Prop. 2, 10, 19 (§ 445); cf. Hor. Sat. 1, 6, 143. 4) Cf. Fest. in nania; Cic. de Legg. 2, 24; Hor. A. P. 431; Od. 2, 20, 21 ; Ovid. Fast. 6,668, “Ducit supremos nænia nulla toros ;” Quint. 8, 2," Ut carmen funebre proprie nænia ;" hence nania is used of songs of grief (cf. Hor. Od. 2, 1, 38, "Ceæ retractes munera næniæ"); and in fact of any lamentable event, even of any kind of song, and (as the French word chanson) it means, 'nonsense, trifles; cf. Hor. Od. 3, 28, 16; Epist. 1, 1, 62. The word lessum was, by the ancients, thought to mean a funeral lament or howl: hence lessum habere, facere; cf. Cic. de Legibus, 2, 23; cf. Plaut. Truc. 4, 2, 18. 5) Cf. Juven. 8, init.; Prop. 2, 10, 19; Tac. Ann. 3, 76. 6) Cf. Plin. 35, 12; Polyb. 6, 53; Dionys. 7, 72; Suet. Tib. 57, and Vesp. 19: "-in funere Favo (?) archimimus personam ejus ferens, imitansque, ut est mos, facta ac dicta vivi," etc. 7) Cf. Liv. 38, 55. 8) Cf. Prop. 2, 10, 29. 487. The procession moved through the Forum, where it was customary for a funeral panegyric1 to be pronounced before the rostra; the corpse was usually buried beyond the city walls by the public highways. The ancients state that formerly the Romans were wont to be buried in their own farms or in the city 3, and this is confirmed by the law of the XII Tables (p. 254): Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito*; but exceptions were granted in the case of illustrious men, who were frequently interred within the city, and sometimes in the Campus Martius". Concerning the puticuli of the poor beyond the Esquiline hill consult Festus on the word Puticulus. It seems that formerly it was more usual to bury7 the body than to bury the ashes after burning it: though the words neve urito, in the law of the XII Tables, prove that it was practised even in those times. And in later times the custom of burying infants who died before cutting a tooth, or, as others say, before they were forty days old 10, obtained, and was observed in the case of members of the gens Cornelia". In the case of a man struck by lightning, see § 321. The funeral pile, rogus or pyra, was built according to the means and rank of the deceased, and kindled by the relatives 12, after having been sprinkled with odour, with averted eyes. On the burning pile were thrown valuables, especially the arms, clothes, and other property of the deceased or even of his friends. The corpse having been consumed during lamentations and weeping, and the fire having been quenched by wine, the friends and relatives collected the bones and parts of the ashes, and placing them with odours and other things in an urn, committed it to the sepulchre: to these practices ossilegium, urna cinerariæ, ossariæ, refer. Bodies not intended to be burnt were carried inclosed in coffins, loculi, capuli, feretra, sarcophagi. 1) Cf. Dionys. 4, 40. 11, 39; Plut. Public. 9. 2) Cf. Juven. 1, extr., " Quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina;" Att. c. extr. 3) Cf. Isid. Origg. 15, 11; Liv. 6, 36. Cic. de Legg. 2, 23. 5) Cf. Cic. ib.; Suet. Cæs. 84. Nepos in 4) See 6) Hor. Sat. 1, 8, 10; Suet. Aug. 72. 7) Cic. ib. 8) Cf. Cic. de Legg. 2, 22 and 23; Creuz. § 303. 9) See Plin. 7, 16. 10) To which the term suggrundarium was applied; sc. sepulchrum, a suggrunda v. suggrundio, a projecting roof; see Fulgent. Expos. Serm. Antiq. §7; Creuz. § 302. 11) Cf. Cic. de Legg. 2, 22. 12) Cf. Virg. Æn. 6, 223. 13) Cf. Tac. Ann. 3, 2; Suet. Cæs. 84. 14) Cf. Tib. 1, 1, 75 (61), “ Flebis et arsuro positum me, Delia, lecto;" Prop. 1, 17, 23," Illa meum extremo clamasset pulvere nomen, Ut mihi non ullo pondere terra foret;" where the last verse paraphrases the common expression found on tombstones, sit tibi terra levis ! 15) Cf. Tib. 1, 3, 5. 3, 2, 23; Prop. 1, 17, 12; Hor. Od. 2, 6, 22. 16) Cf. Hom. Iliad. extr.; Ovid. Trist. 3, 3, 65; Tib. 3, 2, 9, will furnish a commentary on this subject. Ergo ego quum tenuem fuero mutatus in umbram, Candidaque ossa super nigra favilla teget, Ante meum veniat longos incomta capillos, Et fleat ante meum mosta Neæra rogum. Sed veniat caræ matris comitata dolore. Mæreat hæc genero, mœreat illa viro. Præfatæ ante meos manes, animamque precatæ, Perfusæque pias ante liquore manus, Pars quæ sola mei superabit corporis, ossa Incinctæ nigra candida veste legant. Et primum annoso spargant collecta Lyæo, Mox etiam niveo fundere lacte parent. Post hæc carbaseis humorem tollere velis, Atque in marmorea ponere sicca domo. Illic, quas mittit dives Panchaia merces, Eoique Arabes, dives et Assyria, I may Et nostri memores lacrimæ fundantur eodem. Atquæ hæc in celebri carmina fronte notet: Lygdamus hic situs est; dolor huic et cura Neæræ, add from Propertius, 1, 17, 11, sqq., and a remarkable passage 2, 10, 16, sqq. de Legg. 2, 24. 17) Cf. Ulp. Pandd. 37, 12, 2. 19) Cf. Plin. 2, 96. 36, 17. 18) Cic. - 488. Suffitio was also one of the funeral rites; on returning from the funeral the mourners and followers were purified, by being sprinkled with water, and by stepping over fire (vide Fest. in aqua.) The formula in breaking up the procession, was ilicet1. The funeral was closed by a feast, silicernium, and games3, particularly shows of gladiators (§ 350), celebrated frequently at the monument, or even whilst the pile was burning*. On the ninth day after, a sacrifice was offered, called novendiale, inferiæ. The ancients say that the funeral took place on the eighth day after death, formerly at night, usually in the evening, and therefore they derive the word funus from funales, and vespillo from vespera, as if vespero7; in later times poor people and the young only were buried at night by torchlight, or by the light of waxen tapers, without procession. 1) Cf. Serv. ad Æn. 6. 215; Don. ad Ter. Phorm. 1, 431; Heaut. 5, 2, 21. 2) The ancients account in different ways for the derivation of this word, deriving it either from silens and cerno, as though it witnessed the presence of the silent dead: others from silex and cana, silicenium, as if the food was laid on flint stones; this is approved of by Jos. Scaliger, who supposes silicernium to stand for silicesnium, as cesna for cœna, See Dacier ad Fest. 3) Cf. Suet. Cæs. 26; Serv. ad Æn. 5, 91; Fest. in silicernium. 4) Cf. Creuz. § 306. 5) Cf. Tac. Ann. 6, 5; Hor. Epod. 17, 48. 6) Cf. Serv. ad Æn. 5, 64; Tac. Ann. 13, 17. Serv. ad En. 11, 143. Cf. Don. ad Ter. Andr. 1, 1, 51; Fest. in vespa; Prop. 4, 11, 46: "inter utramque facem." Dionys. 4, 40; Suet. Dom. 17. 9) Serv. 1. c. 7) See 8) Cf. 4S9. The different kinds of tombs, and the parts of them, were named bustum, tumulus, conditorium, monumentum, cœmeterium1 (Koμnτýpiov,) cinerarium2; hypogæa, were catacombs, and columbarium, the burial-place of the freedmen and slaves of Livia Augusta, so called from its shape, and illustrated by Gorius3; cenotaphium (KEVOTάOLOV, an empty tomb), mausoleum. Sepulchres were also termed singularia, familiaria, gentilitia, etc. In tombs, there are frequently found coins, urns, flasks (ampullæ, phiala) for holding tears or perfumes, sepulchral lamps, etc. The use of grave-stones (saxa, cippi, columnæ sepulchrales) was as common as it is now, and from the numbers still preserved, inscriptions, epitaphia, have been collected commemorative of the names, titles, affection, piety, and other qualities of the dead usually engraven on tombstones". We have already said (§ 94 and 95) that sepulchres were sacred, and under the jurisdiction of the pontifex. 2) Found on inscriptions in 1) Tertull. de Anima c. 51. Grut.; for instance, p. 850. n. 10, 418. n. 11. 3) See Champollion Résumé d'Archéol. v. 1. p. 108. 4) Some at present doubt this; cf. Tib. 3, 2, 25. 5) See Guther. de jure Man. 1. 2. c. 32; Thes. Græv. v. 12. 6) Cf. Tib. 1, 3. 54, 3 2, 27; Prop. 2, 1, 82: "-breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero;" 7, 83; Ovid. Trist. 3, 3, 71. 490. Funerals were either public and announced by proclamation, indictiva and censoria1, or else private, tacita, translatitia, plebeia2, etc. "Among public funerals, those of the Cæsars are particularly remarkable, and were of a distinct kind, called consecratio, apotheosis, and the defunct emperor was in consequence termed divus. On these occasions the image of the deceased was burnt on a lofty pile, from the top of which an eagle flew upwards as though bearing the spirit to Olympus3. Slaves and the poor were carried to the grave on a sandapila, coffin or bier, by vespillones, vespa, or to the pile by ustores; these were also called sandapilarii, and afterwards lecticarii, and the bier, vilis arca, Hor. Sat. I. 8, 9, orciniana sponda, Mart. X. 5, 9. We have already said the funerals of persons under age were conducted without pomp; vast sums were frequently expended on those of the rich "; on public funerals enormous; and sometimes incredible sums were lavished by the Romans, whose profuse expenditure on magnificent exhibitions we have elsewhere stated to have proceeded to inconceivable lengths. Instances of this are found in the funerals of Sylla7 and Poppaa. Cicero mentions that by the laws of the XII Tables (p. 254) lavish expenditure on funerals was forbidden they prohibited the use of gold on these occasions, ne aurum addatur 10, or more than ten fluteplayers, tibicines (§ 444), or three hired mourners, : |