and with one of these the great Rhazes was associated, as we have seen. The most famous of the Arab hospitals were the hospital founded at Damascus about 1160 by Nureddin, as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Islam from the menace of the Second Crusade, and the Mansur Hospital of Cairo, erected (1284) for rulers and subjects, freemen and slaves, rich and poor, men and women. At Damascus, Bagdad, and Cairo, provision was made for medical education, libraries were established, and courses of public lectures were given. The knowledge of ophthalmology was particularly advanced, and the insane were treated with much more consideration by the Arabs than by the Christians of the same period. In the Western Caliphate there were numerous hospitals in Cordova and other cities. In the twelfth century Avenzoar was superintendent of a hospital at Seville. It is true that the Arabs contributed little to the advance of anatomy, for their beliefs made dissection a forbidden practice. They believed that in the world to come the body must be subjected to the examination of two angels, and that the absence of any part might endanger the eternal happiness of the person. Moreover, they held that death was a gradual process only complete with putrefaction, and that contact with a dead body was a contamination. Nevertheless, though it was left for the age following that of the dominance of the Arabs to build upon the foundations laid by the ancients in the department of anatomy, in this field also there is evidence of the transmission of medical science through the channel of Arabic literature. When we use the terms ligamentum nuchae, sagittal suture, dura mater, pia mater, infundibulum, or speak of the cochlea of the ear, or the auricles of the heart, we adopt a nomenclature suggested by the writings of Arab physicians, just as when we use the terms Adam's apple, and cauda equina, we follow the figurative mode of expression of the Jewish physicians, associated at times, as we have seen, with the Arabs. REFERENCES Arabian Nights, translated by Sir R. F. Burton in twelve volumes. London, 1894. Vol. IV, pp. 171-80. Berthelot, M.: Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge. Paris, 1899. 330 pp.; Les origines de l'alchimie. Paris, 1885. 445 PP. Browne, E. G.: Arabian Medicine. Cambridge, 1921. 139 pp. Cholmeley, H. P.: John of Gaddesden and the Rosa Medicina. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1912. 184 pp. Greenhill, W. A.: A Treatise on the Smallpox and Measles. By Abu Becr Mohammed ibn Zacariya Ar-razi (commonly called Rhazes). Translated from the Original Arabic. London, The Sydenham Society, 1848. 212 pp. Hopkins, A. J.: "Earliest Alchemy," The Scientific Monthly, June, 1918, pp. 530-37. Hyrtl, Joseph: Das Arabische und Hebräische in der Anatomie. Vienna, 1879. 311 pp. Levy, Reuben: "The 'Tractatus de Causis et Indiciis Morborum,’ Attributed to Maimonides," p. 225 in Studies in the History and Method of Science, edited by Charles Singer. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1917. Spencer, Dr. Herbert: "Mercurio's or Walcher's Position," Lancet, 1912, vol. 1, pp. 1568-69. Jewish Encyclopedia: "Moses ben Maimon," "Medicine," etc. CHAPTER V THE REVIVAL OF ANATOMY AND SURGERY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY THE rise of modern anatomy and surgery is closely associated with the development of the Italian and French universities. Southern Italy was the natural meeting-place of the influences that contributed to the growth of medical science in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, and the tradition that the University of Salerno owed its origin to the combined efforts of an Arab, a Jew, a Greek, and a Roman, may be accepted as indicating the sources from which the Salernitan teachers of medicine derived their doctrines. Much of the teaching in the "civitas Hippocratica," as Salerno was called, related to diet and other matters of hygiene, but anatomy and surgery were by no means overlooked. One of the earlier teachers at Salerno, Copho the Younger, a Jew, was the author of "De Anatome Porci," the first modern work on anatomy (about 1100). Toward the close of the twelfth century, another of the Salernitan doctors, Roger of Palermo, į wrote a treatise on surgery, " Practica," which was revised by his pupil Roland of Parma in the thirteenth century. In the section dealing with wounds of the intestines, the surgeon is directed to insert in the intestinal canal a small tubular piece of elder and then to stitch the raw edges of the bowel together over it. In the school of Salerno women were admitted both as students and teachers, and one of them, Mercuriada, wrote a treatise on surgery. Nicholas of Salerno, in his "Antidotarium," speaks of a soporific sponge, prepared by saturating a natural sponge with a solution of mandragora, opium, hyoscyamus, lettuce, camphor, and nenuphar. This anodyne was dried, kept till needed, and then moistened with hot water or steam, and held to the patient's nostrils till sleep was induced. Bologna, the second of the European universities, contributed to the advance of surgery and anatomy through the work of Hugh of Lucca, his son Theodoric, Bishop of Cervia, William of Saliceto, Mondino, and his pupil Bertuccio. Hugh of Lucca, who is known to us through the writings of Theodoric, was appointed city surgeon of Bologna in 1214, a few years later had experience of military surgery with the Crusaders in Egypt and Syria, and died at an advanced age about the middle of the thirteenth century. He observed strict cleanliness in the treatment of wounds, avoided the use of the probe, and employed compresses soaked in wine. Theodoric is quite definite concerning the advance made at Bologna in surgery. "For," he states, "it is not |