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the type of manes acknowledged by whole tribes have developed. Certain tribes seem to supply instances of the original form of ancestor adoration unadulterated, as, among them, all worship is exclusively restricted to the families or kindred groups. Thus the Korwás in India are said only to sacrifice to the manes of their ancestors, and as this ceremony must necessarily be performed by the head of each family, they have no priests. >> 1 Certain inhabitants of Cambodia have hardly any other worship than that paid to the Arac, or friends long since departed, who are regarded as a kind of invisible and powerful protectors. 2

In other cases we find that private ancestral gods became, under certain circumstances, universally worshipped, and thus passed into tribal gods. A Russian writer, M. Banzarof, describing how among the Mongols such a development has taken place, states that formerly manes-worship was very general among that people. In the course of time, however, they began to believe that the spirits of the deceased either favoured the living or caused them mischief, and gradually there was originated a new kind of gods, or »Ongons». The mere veneration felt for the ancestral shades disappeared, and the people began, instead, to worship good and evil Ongons, or the spirits of strange persons who did not belong to the families of the worshippers. The dead of the Ostyaks in Siberia receive divine honours for a longer or shorter time, as the shaman directs. But when a shaman dies, his descendants do their utmost to keep to keep him in remembrance from generation to generation, and the ordinary custom of offering divine honours to the dead. changes, in his favour, into a complete and decided

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1 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 229.

2 Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 178.

3 Банзаровъ, Шаманство у Монголовъ, р. 32.

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canonisation. Among the Khonds deceased ancestors are invoked to give prosperity to the labours, and victory to the arms of their descendants. »But they are propitiated upon every occasion of public worship whatsoever; and it is said that a perfectly accomplished priest takes between three and four hours to recite his roll of gods and deified men.»> >>The more distinguished fathers of the tribe, of its branches, or of its subdivisions are all remembered by the priests, their sanctity growing with the remoteness of the period of their deaths. » 2 The Rautia, in Chota Nagpore, believe that certain persons are liable, after death, to reappear as evil spirits, and it is said that some spirits of this kind »extend their influence over several families, and eventually attain the rank of a tribal god.» In Tahiti there was an intermediate class between the principal divinities and the gods of particular localities or professions; their origin is veiled in obscurity, but they are said to have been renowned men, who after death were deified by their descendants and subsequently became universally worshipped. In certain cases we learn that the household god of the king is adopted as a universally acknowledged tribal god. So it is among certain peoples of Eastern Central Africa, where the relatives of the village chiefs are the village gods, »everyone that lives in the village recognizes these gods.> Mariner, enumerating the principal gods of the Tongans, mentions that several of these are, in particular, the gods of the king and his. family."

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1 Erman, Travels in Siberia, ii. 51.

2 Macpherson, 'Religious Opinions of the Khonds,' in Jour. Roy.

As. Soc. vii. 189.

3 Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ii. 207.

* Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 327.

5 Macdonald, Africana, i. 65.

6 Mariner, Natives of the Tonga Islands, ii. 105 sqq.

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Among those men who after death receive divine honours are, in many cases, included the renowned warriors and other great members of a tribe. Cheyne says that in the Isle of Pines, besides the chiefs, noted warriors are supposed to maintain, after death, communication with their fellow-tribesmen, which is shown by the fact that the priests pretend to be inspired by them for their office. From Samoa we learn that one class of gods are men whose past deeds won the gratitude and the worship of posterity. 2 The New Zealanders hold that >>the Atua who more particularly watch over the fortunes of a tribe are the spirits of its warriors and other great men. In war these spirits are supposed to attend the army and direct its movements; in actual conflict they hover over the combatants and inspire courage in the hearts of their own tribe.» Among the Kafirs the ghosts of their departed chiefs and warriors are principal objects of their national belief. The Thlinkets believe that the souls of the brave killed in battle occupy an upper rank among the spirits invoked by their shamans. 5

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Most frequently, however, we are told that it is great rulers who are worshipped after death and are reckoned as particular protectors of their people. We read that among the Santals each hamlet has an original founder who is regarded as the father of the community and receives divine honours. 6 In Nias one of the gods is the image of the founder of the tribe. M. Fustel de

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• Shortland, Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders,

pp. 81 sq.

+ Holden, Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, p. 283.

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Dall, Alaska, p. 422.

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Hunter, The Annals of Rural Bengal, i. 216 sq.

7 Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 174.

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Coulanges gives us several instances of Roman and Greek cities, the founders of which were worshipped by the inhabitants. 1 Sir John Malcolm says that the most. singular, and perhaps the most original worship of the Bhills, is that which they pay to their deceased ancestors, or chiefs of note.>> 2 In Uganda deceased kings are demi-gods, in Chicova, on the Zambesi, »they pray to departed chiefs and relatives,» and similar customs are reported also from the Sandeh, north-west of the Albert Nyanza, from the Zulu and the Malagasy. The natives of Kuria, one of the Kingsmill Islands, seem to have believed that their gods also had once been chiefs, who from the lapse of time had been forgotten.»> 8 Of the inhabitants of Bornabi, it is asserted that »>their prayers were usually addressed to the spirit of some deceased chief. » 9 One of the most popular gods of Hawaii, was Lono, an ancient king. 10 We are also told that Oro, the mightiest god of war of the Tahitians, appears to have been a deified mortal, an origin which, with more or less probability, is also assigned to Hiro, another widely venerated god. 11 In Samoa most gods. derived their origin from the postmortal deification of chiefs, 12 The New Zealanders believed that several high chiefs after death became deified. 13

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Fustel de Coulanges, La Cité Antique, p. 162.

2 Malcolm, 'Essay on the Bhills,' in Trans. Roy. As. Soc. i. 72.

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Ellis, History of Madagascar, i. 392.

Wilkes, Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, v. 87.

9 Cheyne, Western Pacific Ocean, p. 121.

10 Jarves, History of the Hawaiian Islands, p. 23.

11 Meinicke, Inseln des Stillen Oceans, ii. 178 sq.

12 Ib., ii. 116.

13 Thomson, The Story of New Zealand, i. 110.

Under certain circumstances departed persons are transformed into malevolent spirits, of which many savage tribes live in terror. Very generally, persons who die a violent death are considered to become spirits, and deformed and insane persons are also often referred after death to the same class of beings. The sudden interruption of life, without any subsequent propitiation of the spirit, seems to give rise to the idea of unappeased manes who inflict suffering upon men, while the awe with which idiots and cripples are regarded among many peoples accounts for the belief that they may bring about all sorts of mischief after death. Respecting notions of this kind, Crooke states that among the Chamârs in upper India, »persons who die in a sudden or unusual way become malevolent spirits (bhût), and must be carefully propitiated.>> The Rautia think that exorcists, women who die in childbirth, and persons killed by a tiger, are liable to reappear as Bhuts. 2 By certain tribes in Western India evil spirits are held to »originate from the souls of those who have died untimely or violent deaths, or been deformed, idiotic or insane; afflicted with fits or unusual ailments; or drunken, dissolute, or wicked during life.»> 3 In Cambodia, »les femmes mortes en couche deviennent des revenants très redoutés.» 4 The Pelew Islanders fear the spirits of relatives killed in battle who have had their heads cut off, as, also, the spirits of people murdered for revenge, those of women who die in childbed, and those of suicides, are greatly feared. 5 Among certain Australians, »men who are slain in battle, and their bodies left to rot or be devoured by wild dogs,

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Crooke, Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Cudh, ii. 189.

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3 Walhouse, 'On the Belief in Bhutas,' in Jour. Anthr. Inst. v. 408.

+ Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 178.

5 Kubary, in Bastian, Allerlei, i. 10.

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