spirit controls the reindeer. To the thinking of the ancient Semites the life-giving power of the god was not limited to vegetable nature, but to him also was ascribed the multiplication of flocks and herds, etc. 2 Among the ancient Scandinavians Thor was the god of thunder and favourable showers, and Frej the god of crops and fertile vegetation," and the ancient Finns, again, had a number of gods to whom they ascribed power over different departments of nature including the vegetable and animal worlds. 4 There is, however, one phenomenon which perhaps more than any other impresses the savage with the idea of a supernatural origin. This is the phenomenon of illness and death. It is a fact, of which there are found innumerable instances in all parts of the world, that the savage cannot, as a rule, form a proper conception of illness, and that he is equally at a loss before the mystery of death. Yet, over and over again, cases of disease and death come before his eyes. Under such circumstances, will not the belief that illness and death are due to supernatural causes be intelligible enough? 6 8 The notions of uncivilized and semi-civilized peoples in regard to these mysteries are well known to science. Lord Avebury, Dr. Tylor, Dr. Bartels and Dr. Jevons 5 have treated this subject and have collected numerous facts showing how wild people look upon and understand it. Therefore we need not add any fresh instances, but may content ourselves with referring to those quoted by 1 Turner, 'Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,' in Smithsonian Reports, xi. 200. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, p. 107. 2 3 5 Avebury, Origin of Civilization, pp. 25-29, 236 sq. • Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 126–131. 7 Bartels, Medicin der Naturvölker, pp. 11-44. 8 Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, pp. 44 sqq. the savants just mentioned. We have only to observe that among savage peoples two different conceptions are met with as to the nature of disease and death. According to the one, gods or spirits, for different reasons and in different ways, cause these two evils among men. Agreeably to the other conception, the phenomena have their origin in the magical machinations of evil-doers. So deeply rooted are these ideas among wild races, that several peoples are stated invariably to ascribe all disease and death either to the agency of spirits or to witchcraft. Obviously, the universal conviction among savages that the whole of nature as well as any prosperity in life is governed by supernatural agencies has effectively contributed to the origin of priesthood. So far as the belief in the influence of spiritual beings and the efficacy of magic has extended, so far extends also the need of >> wise men» acquainted with the wishes of the gods or skilled in the practice of the black art. People require the services of those able to take the lead in their mysterious ceremonies, hence the great importance attached to priesthood. So long as the people enjoy the protection of their priests, they need not fear the omnipotent gods, since the vengeance of the latter can be averted by the insight and power of the former. From this, it will be perceived what an important part the priests play in early society and how urgently their help is needed in all circumstances of life. In many cases savages think themselves unable to communicate directly with the gods. Acknowledging their inferiority in this respect, they regard the priests as the only mediators between them and the supreme powers. The priests are their only protectors; without the priesthood the ignorant population would be abandoned to all the misfortunes arising from the anger of the gods or from witchcraft. Thus we read of the Kafirs that their belief in »bewitching matter» produces the most distressing superstitious dread. >>Hence the witch doctor or priest is a felt necessity; some one to go between, and turn aside threatened vengeance.» The priests are the only recognized men who can appease the gods and remove the calamities sent by them. The Ipurina Indians in Brazil think their wizards are alone able to conjure the spirits, &c., 2 and similarly by the Hudson Bay Eskimo only the shaman is supposed to be able to deal with the great evil spirit. 3 By means of their Angakoks the the Greenlanders expect advantage from supernatural beings. Castrén says, respecting the shamans of the ancient Finns, that they were able to communicate with the spirits, whereas the supernatural world was shut up for ordinary people. 5 4 6 A legend of the Buryats tells us that the first shamans were sent by the gods to men for the particular purpose of protecting them against the evil spirits. Mr. Rowney states of the Oráons or Dhángurs in Chota Nagpore that the chief duty of their priests is to look after and regulate the precautionary measures to be taken against the malignant spirits. We are told concerning the Tarahumare, a Mexican tribe, that without their shamans they would feel lost both in this life and after death. 8 And respecting certain Indians of Guiana Mr. Im Thurn says:- It is almost impossible to over-estimate the dreadful sense of constant and unavoidable danger 1 7 Holden, l'ast and Future of the Kaffir Races, pp. 284, 301. 2 Ehrenreich, Beiträge zur Völkerkunde Brasiliens, p. 68. 3 Turner, 'Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,' in Smithsonian Reports, xi. 194. 4 Nansen, Eskimoliv, p. 210. 5 Castrén, Nordiska resor och forskningar, iii. 197-99. 6 Агапитовъ and Хангаловъ, Шаманство у Бурять,, in Извѣстія В.-Сиб Отд. Геогр. Общ. xiv. 41. in which the Indian would live were it not for his trust in the protecting power of the peaiman,» who is the benevolent wizard-priest. We learn that the doctor of the Tehuelches in Patagonia is expected by the people to conciliate or banish the evil spirit who constantly endeavours to inflict harm upon them.2 In Ashanti the people believe that evils can only be removed, and desired benefits conferred by the fetishes; and that their friendly interposition must be sought through the medium of their servants or ministers.» 3 And among the Kafirs, >> each tribe has its national national priests, or 'intonga yakwomkulu', whose duty it is to protect the person of the Chief; to avert all national calamities from the tribe; and especially to make the army strong to fight and conquer all its enemies. > + The principal duty of the priests is to administer, or give advice as to, the worship of the gods. As all gods do not stand in the same relation to men, the assistance of the priests must often be called in to point out the special deities to which the people should offer their sacrifices. Very generally the gods are believed to bear ill will to men, and therefore it is also the duty of the priests to give directions as to the proper offerings. It is all the more necessary to know how to please the gods, as they are generally held to be very particular about the form of prayer and sacrifice. This is said to be the case, for instance, with the gods of the Cheremisses, a Finnish tribe in Eastern Russia, which has up to this time preserved a great number of pagan observances. Therefore even an expert shaman among them, when invoking the gods, asks forgiveness for involuntary mistakes regarding the form of his prayers. A Russian writer, speaking of the origin of the Siberian shamans, says that ordinary people are not believed, by the aborigines, to know what sacrifices the spirits require, nor to understand the art of divination, etc. The need of persons properly qualified to advise the people in these matters has given rise to the profession of the shamans. 2 The people of Nias, in the Malay Archipelago, believe that the benevolent spirits have power over the evil ones who cause all kinds of calamities. But it is very difficult to know which of the good spirits should be invoked on a particular occasion of distress. This can only be found out through the medium of the priests. Although, among the Lapps, everybody in ordinary cases sacrifices for himself, the shaman is often applied to to point out the proper deity on each occasion as well as the kind of offering and the place of sacrifice. * The same duty is incumbent upon the priest of the Wotyaks, a Finnish tribe living in Eastern Russia. 5 Among the Eskimo about Bering Strait, observance of various festivals and the attendant rites are usually excecuted according to the instructions of shamans, who learn by the aid of their mysterious power what is acceptable to the shades and the tunghât,» or tutelary spirits. 6 3 To the influence of the gods, as we have seen, various phenomena in nature are ascribed. The priests are also in many cases believed to be able to perform 2 Шашковъ, "Шаманство," in Записки Геогр. Общ. її. 4. 3 Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 162. Georgi, Russland, i. 14. Genetz, 'Matkamuistelmia Venäjän Lapista,' in Suomen Kuvalehti, vi. 375. 5 6 Buch, 'Die Wotjäken,' in Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn. xii. 590. Nelson, The Eskimo about Bering Strait,' in Smithsonian Reports, xviii, 1. p. 43Ɔ. |