War with Great Britain and France. China's brought to a crisis in October, 1856, by the seizure of the Arrow, a British vessel built in China, by the Chinese officials. This act led to a desultory war of several years between China and Great Britain, in which the Chinese generally were successful. France, having suffered the same wrongs at the hands of the Chinese, made common cause with Great Britain. These two European powers determined to compel China to a settlement, sending a combined expedition against China in 1857. The Anglo-French fleet bombarded Canton, December 28, Capture 1857; and the next day the British and French land forces, numbering of Canton. six thousand men, entered the city. The Chinese viceroy, Yeh, was taken prisoner; but the Chinese government sought to offset this reverse by degrading Yeh and appointing his successor. Capture Peiho China's Russia and the United States now united with Great Britain and France in seeking to compel China to negotiate more liberal treaties with the Western powers. As the action of the Chinese government was unsatisfactory, the allied forces assailed and took the Taku forts, at the mouth of the Peiho, and advanced to Tien-tsin, fifty miles above the mouth of that river. Thereupon the Chinese government yielded Treaties and at once concluded treaties with Great Britain, France, Russia and Western the United States, stipulating for the residence of foreign Ministers at Pekin; for the opening of several additional ports to foreign commerce; for the free navigation of the river Yangtse-kiang, and for the settlement of the transit-dues question. China paid to Great Britain an indemnity of five and a half million dollars and paid a smaller sum to France. with the Nations. China's Evasion. British Fleet Repulsed. As usual, China sought to evade this treaty, endeavoring to prevent the foreign Ministers from reaching Pekin by prescribing a most unusual route for them and imposing various vexatious delays upon them. Thereupon the British Minister ordered the British fleet under Admiral Hope to force the passage of the Peiho river. That naval commander attempted to execute the orders of the Minister, but was repulsed with heavy loss by the Taku forts. Action The British and French Ministers then retired to Shanghai to await of the instructions from their respective governments. The United States Foreign Envoys. Minister, Mr. Ward, decided to accept the Chinese conditions; and, Capture of Tien-tsin and Pekin. after undergoing many inconveniences and indignities, he at length arrived at Pekin; but, as he was granted an interview with the Chinese Emperor only on conditions degrading to himself and his country, he returned in disgust to Shanghai, where he joined the British and French Ministers. Great Britain and France resented China's bad faith by renewing the war with the Celestial Empire, and a combined British and French expedition proceeded against Pekin. The allies took the Taku forts August 21, 1860, and occupied Tien-tsin three days later. The Chinese authorities sought to check the advance of the allies by negotiation; but the allies, understanding the Chinese design, pushed on to the Chinese capital. The allies reached Pekin on October 6, 1860, plundered and burned the Emperor's summer palace and obtained possession on one of the gates of the city on October 13, 1860. There- Treaty of upon the Chinese government yielded and at once renewed and ratified its treaties with Great Britain and France. The allies then retired from Pekin, and China ever since has observed her treaties with the Western powers in good faith. In 1859 China ceded a large part of the valley of the Amour river, embracing much of Manchuria, to Russia. Tien-tsin. A. D. 1862 1875. Three Rebellions Sup The Emperor Hien-fung died in 1862, and was succeeded by his son Yung-chi, YUNG-CHI. After great bloodshed, the gigantic rebellion of Tae-ping Wang finally was suppressed in 1864, and the imperial authority was reëstablished in the revolted districts of Southern China. The Mohammedan rebellion in the south-western province of Yunnan was quelled in 1873, in the spring of which year the Chinese imperial forces captured the city of Tali-foo, the capital of the province of Yunnan, after a vigorous siege. Upon entering the conquered city the imperial army massacred thirty thousand of their captives. The Mohammedan Sultan, Suleiman, poisoned himself rather than be taken prisoner by his victorious enemies. In 1862 a second Mohammedan rebellion broke out in the north-western provinces of China, but it was crushed in 1873. In 1864 the provinces of Soongaria and Kashgar achieved their independence under the able and powerful Yakoob Khan, who maintained an independent government until his death in 1877, and who was one of the greatest chieftains of Central Asia in modern times. In 1868 a Chinese embassy headed by Anson Burlingame, formerly United States Minister to China, visited the United States and the various European powers and entered into new treaties with all those powers. Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg in 1869, during his mission to Russia as the head of this Chinese embassy. In 1870 the Chinese attacked the French at Tien-tsin and massacred the consul, the vice-consul, the interpreter of the French legation at Pekin and his wife, a Catholic priest, nine Sisters of Charity and some others. The French consulate, the cathedral and the missionary hospital were destroyed by the Chinese mob. The Chinese government severely punished the outrage and made an apology to France. In 1871 China became involved in a dispute with Russia and was obliged to cede to that European power the district of Kulja and the entire basin of the Elee, a region comprising about six hundred thousand square miles and containing about two million inhabitants. pressed. Yakoob Khan's Revolt. Burlin game Embassy. Anti French China's to Kwangsu, since A. D. 1875. China's The Emperor Yung-chi, who had become of age only in 1873, died in 1875 and was succeeded by his son KWANG-SU, who was a mere child. The first railway in China-from Shanghai to Wu-Sung, a distance of eleven miles was opened June 30, 1876. This road was built by an English company and at first was regarded with hostility by the Railroad. Chinese, so that it seemed probable at one time that the Chinese government would cause the tracks to be torn up; but the vigorous protestations of the British Minister obliged China to remain faithful to her obligations and to respect the rights of the owners of the road. The hostility of the Chinese changed to delight as soon as the trains commenced running, and they loudly praised this new means of locomotion. For twelve years the Chinese had been engaged in a struggle for the of recovery of Kashgar, which had gained its independence under Yakoob Kashgar. Khan in 1864; but they were able to recover their lost province only after the death of Yakoob Khan, in 1877. China's Recovery China's War with France. Neighbor ing Empires of Siam, Anam and Invasion The French invasion and conquest of Tonquin during France's war with Anam in 1883 brought on a war between France and China in 1884, as the Chinese government claimed a suzerainty over Tonquin. The French navy bombarded Foo Chow in August, 1884, and the French armies gained some victories over the Chinese forces in Tonquin; but the great Chinese victory at Langson, in the spring of 1885, led to a treaty of peace by which France was obliged to relinquish her claim for indemnity from China, while China recognized France's suzerainty over Tonquin. Farther India, or India beyond the Ganges, has been the seat of several empires. Of these Siam is very ancient, but Anam and Burmah rose to importance only in the eighteenth century. Pegu was an ancient kingdom of Farther India which was conquered about 1755 by Burmah. Alompra, the victorious founder of the Empire of Burmah, who established the complete independence of Burmah, subdued the small neighBurmese boring kingdoms, invaded Siam, and, after a series of victories, besieged the Siamese capital. Only Alompra's sudden illness and death in 1760 prevented his entire subjugation of Siam. The Burmese army at once evacuated Siam, which thus remained independent. In 1767 a Chinese army invaded Burmah and approached its capital, but was routed with. Burmah. great slaughter in a pitched battle. The Chinese failed in another invasion of Burmah some years afterward. Several subsequent wars between Siam and Burmah resulted in the extension of Burmese territory. of Siam. Chinese Invasion of British of Burmah's three wars with Great Britain resulted in the conquest and Conquest extinction of the Burman Empire as an independent power. In the first of these wars the British conquered and annexed a large slice of Burmese territory in 1826. In the second war the British conquered Burmah. In and annexed another large portion of Burmese territory in 1852. In 1858 the Empire of Anam became involved in a war with France and Spain, and the French conquered and annexed a large part of Anamese territory in 1862. Another war between France and Anam begun in 1883 ended in the conquest of Tonquin and Cochin China in 1885, and the whole of Anam since has been under the sovereignty of the French Republic, under the name of French Indo-China. In 1893 France forced Siam to cede all her territory east of the Mekong river to French Indo-China. French Conquest of Anam. SECTION II.-ANCIENT, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN JAPAN (B. C. 660-A. D. 1894). THE early history of Japan is purely fabulous. The islands of Yezo and Hondo were occupied by an indigenous savage race, called Ainōs. The islands of Shikoku and Kiushiu were inhabited by mixed races from various portions of Southern Asia. The Japanese legends state that when the divine ancestors of the Japanese imperial family came to the southern islands they found those islands thus peopled. These and their descendants taught the people the simple arts of civilization and conquered the savage inhabitants of the two great northern islands. Japan's Early History. Jimmu Tenno, the First Mikado. The authentic history of Japan begins with JIMMU TENNO, the first Mikado, or Emperor, about B. C. 660. This great personage established his power over the southern islands about that time and subdued the Ainōs of the northern islands, whereupon he ascended the throne of Japan. He was a good and wise ruler as well as a great warrior. He established his capital near Kioto and gave his subjects a code of laws and a strong, settled government. He exerted himself earnestly to promote the civilization of his dominions and was esteemed highly by his subjects. His descendants occupied the Japanese throne for many centuries, bearing the title of Mikado and claiming to reign by divine right, as their illustrious ancestor was considered the fifth in descent. from the sun-goddess. The anniversary of Jimmu Tenno's accession to the Japanese throne still is celebrated in Japan as a national holiday. Under Jimmu Tenno's descendants Japan steadily advanced in His Succivilization and prosperity. We are told that twelve Mikados reached the age of a hundred years. One of them is said to have reigned one. hundred and one years. The reigns of the first seventeen are said to cessors. Sujin, the Keiko. Jingu- Ojin. Korean and Buddhism. have averaged over sixty-one years. From the seventeenth to the thirty-first the average reign is little over twelve years. In B. C. 97 began the reign of the tenth Mikado, SUJIN THE CIVILIZER, who labored to promote the prosperity of his subjects, improved the Japanese system of irrigation and founded a new military system. The twelfth Mikado was KEIKO, whose son Yamato-Daké extended the Empire by conquering the Kuanto and was a great legendary hero. In A. D. 203 the Empress-Regent JINGU-KOGO subdued Korea. Her son and successor ОJIN was a great warrior. He was deified after his death and is now worshiped as the Japanese god of war. After the Japanese conquest of Korea there was a large Korean Migration migration to Japan, and the Korean immigrants introduced Buddhism into the Empire. This faith spread silently among the Japanese; and in A. D. 552 a company of doctors, diviners, astronomers and mathematicians came from Korea to live at the Japanese court, bringing a band of Buddhist missionaries with them. This Korean immigration introduced the civilization of continental Asia into Japan and brought with it art, science, letters, literature and the Buddhist religion, all of which hitherto had been unknown in the Japanese Empire; thus changing the character and history of Japan forever. Triumph of Buddhism. The Mikado and his subjects endeavored to suppress Buddhism; but that religion grew in spite of all opposition, and in A. D. 593 the Empress SUIKO granted perfect toleration, since which time Buddhism has grown with unceasing rapidity. At present it is one of the national religions of Japan, the other being Shintoism. The Empress Empress Suiko was one of the great sovereigns of Japan. She caused written codes of laws to be framed, constituted a new and rigid system of official grades, caused the Empire to be resurveyed and fixed the boundaries of its provinces more accurately. Suiko. Dissen sions and Civil Wars. For the next five centuries the Mikado's power declined, and Japan was distracted by the contentions of rival families. The Mikado became a mere puppet of the great nobles, who increased their own power. The Mikado was allowed one wife and twelve concubines, so as to insure offspring; and the succession depended upon the Mikado's arbiOffice of trary will. This was the cause of the centuries of civil war that folShogun. lowed. To end this anarchy and strife, the Mikado finally established the office of Shogun and assigned to him the civil power of the realm. Yoritomo, the First Shogun. Yoritomo, the first Shogun, was a great Japanese hero and was the son of a Minamoto noble by a peasant family. He quickly established his power over the whole Empire and soon reduced all the rebellious nobles to submission. He usurped all the powers of the government, leaving to the Mikado his hereditary rank, dignity and character, A. D. 1184. Thenceforth until the Japanese revolution of 1868 the |