HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY. it is very certain, that Galileo reinvented it, without any assistance, only merely hearing that such an inKep-strument had been made. The sur (Concluded from col. 277.) CONTEMPORARY with Tycho and ler, lived Mr. Edward Wright and Lord Napier, of Merchiston, in Scotland. To the first of these we are indebted for several very accurate observations of the Sun's altitudes, made with a quadrant of six feet radius ; from which he greatly improved the theory of the Sun's motion, and computed more exact tables of his declination than any person had done before. To the latter, we are obliged for the noble invention of logarithms, which, in the estimation of Dr. Halley, "is justly esteemed one of the most useful discoveries in the art of numbers." Besides the invention of logarithms, which has contributed in so eminent a degree to the advancement of Astronomy, the beginning of this century was remarkable for another discovery of no less importance to it-the invention of the telescope. It is doubtful when, and by whom, this noble instrument was first thought of: it is certain, however, that the invention is modern, for we no where find that optic glasses, of any kind whatever, were known to the ancients. Some contend, that Alexander de Spina, a native of Pisa, first made the use of glasses, so combined, known to the world: but it seems highly probable, that our countryman Roger Bacon, who died twenty years before Alexander de Spina, was not ignorant of their use. For it appears very plainly from the writings of Bacon, that he was well acquainted with the properties both of convex and concave lenses, not only when considered separately, but also when combined together in such a manner as they are now done in telescopes. He nowhere however gives directions for placing those glasses, either in a tube or otherwise; and it appears from the manner in which he expresses himself, that he had never done it, but wrote only from theory. The first telescope that was made, is supposed to have been the production of Zachary Johannides, a native of Middleburgh, in Zealand; this is however disputed, and the discovery is claimed by John Zipperhoy, another mechanic of the same place. But let these contested claims stand or fall, prising effects of this instrument, He soon discovered that the disk of the moon is unequal, having hills and valleys like our earth. He also discovered, that Venus assumes the same phases as the moon; being sometimes round, sometimes horned, and at other times gibbous :-that Jupiter was attended by four satellites or moons :that Saturn was surrounded with a large ring:—and from the spots in the sun, first seen by him, he demonstrated that that immense body revolved about an axis; and that the via lactea and nebulous stars were only congeries of numberless small stars. About the year 1633, Jeremiah Horrox, a young man of very extraordinary talents, began to study the science of Astronomy, and by correcting the errors in the tables of Landberg and Kepler from his own observations, he discovered that the planet Venus would pass over the disk of the sun on the 24th of Nov. 1639, O. S. Accordingly, 66 in a letter to his friend, Mr. William | early age of twenty-one, to the island Crabtree, of Manchester, dated Hool, of St. Helena, to observe the southern October 26, 1639, he communicated Stars, a catalogue of which he pubhis discovery to him, and earnestly de-lished in 1679: and a few years afsired him to make whatever observa- terwards he gave to the public his tion he possibly could with his tele- Synopsis Astronomica Cometicæ," scope, particularly to measure the dia- in which he ventured to predict the meter of the planet Venus. The ex- return of a comet in 1758 or 1759, pectations of Mr. Horrox were fully which came to pass accordingly. realized on this occasion; for he and his friend Mr. Crabtree were the first, since the creation of the world, who had the satisfaction of seeing this ex-lebrated by two of the finest discoveries traordinary phenomenon.* About this time flourished that great man, John Helvelius, whose name is immortalized by his curious and learned works. In 1641, he built an observatory in his own house at Dantzic, and furnished it with excellent instruments of his own construction; particularly octants and sextants of brass, of 3 and 4 feet radius, as well as telescopes, with which he constantly observed the spots and phases of the Moon, and from which observations he afterwards compiled his excellent and beautiful work entitled Selenographia. Near the year 1666, the Royal Observatory was begun to be built at Paris; but it was not finished until 1670, when the use of it was assigned to M. Cassini; and in 1671 it was furnished with instruments at a great expense. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was built in 1676, and Mr. Flamsteed was appointed to make use of it. Every person knows to what extent Astronomy has been carried, by the observations that have been made at this observatory. About the beginning of the 18th century, practical Astronomy seemed almost at a stand. Even the genius of Flamsteed served only to shew that it had arrived at its utmost limits, unless great improvements could be made in the construction of instruments; but at the same time, the theoretical part was carried to the highest degree of perfection by the immortal Newton, in his "Principia," and by the astronomy of David Gregory. In 1719, Mr. Flamsteed was succeeded by Dr.Halley, the friend of Newton, and a man of the first eminence in all the departments of literature and science. He had been sent, at the *For a very beautiful description of this transit of Venus over the disk of the Sun, see Ferguson's Astronomy, page 489, &c. On the death of Dr. Halley in 1742, he was succeeded by Dr. Bradley, who has rendered himself highly ce that have ever been made in Astronomy; the aberration of light, and the nutation of the Earth's axis. Among other useful works, he formed new and accurate tables of the motions of Jupiter's satellites, as well as the most correct table of refractions yet extant. Dr. Bradley was succeeded in 1762, in his office of astronomer royal, by Mr. Bliss, who, being in a declining state of health, died in 1765, and was succeeded by Nevil Maskelyne, D. D. who has rendered considerable services to this science, by the publication of the "Nautical Almanac," the 66 Requisite Tables," &c. and, more particularly, by the great assiduity and zeal he has displayed in bringing the Lunar method of determining the longitude at sea into general practice. In the mean time, many other eminent mathematicians, both of our own and other countries, were assiduously employed in endeavouring to promote the science of Astronomy. The theory of the Moon was particularly considered by Messrs. Clairaut, D'Alembert, Euler, Simpson, Walmsley, and Mayer; the latter of whom computed a set of Lunar tables, for which, on account of their superior accuracy, he was rewarded with a premium of 30007. by the Board of Longtitude, who brought them into use in the computation of the Nautical Ephemeris which was published by their order. Among the French astronomers who have also contributed to the advancement of this science, we are particularly indebted to M. de la Caille, for an excellent set of Solar tables, in which he makes allowances for the attractions of Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon, as well as for the observations which he made at the Cape of Good Hope, in concert with the most celebrated astronomers in Europe, in order to determine the parallax of the Italy also the science was cultivated with great success by S. Bianchini, Boscovich, Frisi, Manfredi, Zanotti, and others; and in Germany, by Euler, Mayer, Lambert, &c. Sun, Moon, and the planet Mars. In come in contact with others, and some would have so interfered as to have incommoded each other. But, instead of this confusion, every globe throughout the whole creation is placed at such an exact distance, as not only to avoid all violent concourses, but also, so as not to eclipse or shade one another wherever it might be prejudicial, or indeed not useful and convenient. Such was the state of Astronomy, when Dr. Herschel, by augmenting the powers of the telescope beyond the most sanguine expectations of mankind, opened a scene altogether unlooked for. By this indefatigable observer, we are made acquainted with a new primary planet belonging to our system, called the Georgium Sidus, attended by six satellites, which he discovered on the 13th of March, 1781, and which being at twice the distance of Saturn from the Sun, has doubled the bounds formerly assigned to the Solar system. We are also indebted to him for a variety of observations on several other interesting astronomical subjects: such as, the discovery of two additional satellites, to Saturn, of which the number is now seven; a new method of measuring the Lunar mountains; the rotation of the planets on their axes; on the parallax of the fixed stars; catalogues of double, triple stars, &c.; of nebula; and of the proper motion of the Sun and Solar system. We shall here close the History of Astronomy, the most delightful, the most extensive, and the most sublime science which the great Author of nature has held forth for the employment of the faculties of man. "The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament sheweth his handy work." He has chosen his residence in the heaven of heavens, and therefore we call him the Most High. From thence he directs the courses of the planets, determines the circumstances of their motions, and fixes the times of their revolutions. As a general at the head of an army, he gives the signal to the heavenly bodies, and immediately they shoot forth through immense space, and follow the tracts which he has marked out for them. Had the universe been the work of chance, or of any being but an infinitely wise Architect, there would have been a great many mistakes and inconveniences in the situation of such a prodigious number of immense globes, as the universe contains:some would have been too near, and others too far off;-some would have No. 15.-VOL. II. Let us endeavour to trace his wisdom, power, and goodness in the works of his Almighty hand;—and let us always remember, that in him we live, move, and have our being ;—that our present and eternal happiness depends upon his will, and that it is our duty and best interest to fear, love, and serve him in this world, that whensoever he may be pleased to call us from this transitory state, we may be received into everlasting habitations, where, with enlarged powers of mind, we shall contemplate his perfections and works throughout eternity. ANECDOTES. Ar a small village near Edge Hills, in Warwickshire, a few weeks ago, a labourer under a worthy quaker of that place, having a suspicion that his wife during his absence spent her time too much in gossiping, was resolved to be convinced if his apprehensions were just. Accordingly, he one afternoon asked his master's leave to go home; which being granted, he went, and found his wife, with certain others, very busy at tea and chit-chat; whereupon he broke all the tea-tackle, and locked up the tea-kettle. On his return, his master said, Thomas, what hast thou been home for ?" He answered, Why, master, I have taken Agag prisoner, and slain all the Amalekites." 46 66 JAMES Edward Gordon, Esq. a lieutenant of the Royal Navy, impressed with a desire to extend the distribution of the Holy Scriptures in Ireland, has embarked a considerable property in a stereotype edition of the Rheims Testament, He has travelled to Dublin, and obtained the approbation of the Roman Catholic Bishops; and, under the patronage of Nobility and Gentry, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, this Society is calculated to silence those cavils, which, among the ignorant, impeded the progress of Divine truth. The perverse exaggerations of Ward's Errata of the Protestant Bible, on which he argues an heterodox conspiracy, have been often confuted; and lastly by Grier: but the ignorant, who hear of the one, are frequently prejudiced without the means of seeing the other; and in many instances so powerful is the impression, that it can never afterwards be effaced. The learned, who compare the Rheims and the authorized Protestant version, observe, that the difference does not apply to, and seems never to have been intended to affect, the difference of doctrine between the church of Rome, and church of England: two pages may contain all their various readings, and it will be readily allowed by the impartial, that none of these is essential to morals. It would be extremely useful if the new SOCIETY were to give an Appendix, merely stating the words of the two versions, where they differ; and this may also be annexed to the Protestant version, for the use of Roman Catholics. The Society state, that Roman Catholics have conscientious objections to the Protestant version: but this should be understood, not to extend to any essential objection among the intelligent and learned Roman Catholic priests; but only that they wish to preserve uniformity, just as a Protestant clergyman would not venture to use in his church any of the various excellent Protestant versions, but the authorized version alone, although he will admit that it may in some non-essential particulars require a revision. The enemies of the word of God, no doubt, rejoice in suppressing the Holy Scriptures, by suppressing the Protestant version, at the same time they will not produce a Catholic version: but this is not conscience; it is Atheism, and the spirit of Antichrist disguised. The Latin Vulgate, from which the Rheims Testament was translated, deserves respect, for its usefulness throughout many ages of the church, from 384, A. D. to the Reformation: and it was of great value, giving a uniform authorized version, instead of the numerous Latin versions in private use before the time of Jerome ; although in some cases St. Jerome adopted defects from these previous versions, and in others he altered them for the worse! The copies of MSS. before the invention of printing, also corrupted the Vulgate by many accidental errors, as appears by collating the old Vulgate MS.; and therefore the translations by Protestants from the MSS. of the original languages, place the Vulgate in an inferior rank of excellence in the opinion of every person competent to weigh the evidences. able proof of an over-ruling Providence, that all the various readings in different editions, copies, and languages, do not omit or contradict a single essential doctrine or precept of salvation. It is a remark Rule of Three simplified, TO THE EDITOR OF THE IMPERIAL MAGAZINE. SIR,-On adverting to the excellent, continual, and extensive use of the Golden Rule, and to the great number of young people who are required to learn it so as to be ready in its practical application, you will perceive that any advantage or facility afforded to the student must be important and acceptable. The methods of stating the questions, as given to the public in the works of Dr. Hutton and Mr. Bonnycastle, are justly preferred to any others: Mr. Bonnycastle's arrangement of the terms, is more scientific than the other, and therefore is here adopted. The improvement of the rule, which I wish to communicate through the medium of your valuable Magazine, consists in rendering the method of making the due arrangement of the terms more easy and plain to the tyro; it is exhibited in the second article of the rule. THOS. EXLEY. Bristol, Jan. 6, 1820. A FACILE METHOD OF STATING QUESTIONS IN THE RULE OF THREE. A slight attention will shew, that of the three terms given, two are easily distinguished as implying a supposition, and are called terms of supposition; and the other implying a demand is readily discovered, and is called the demanding term. RULE 1. Consider which of the terms of supposition is of the same kind with the term required, or correspondent to it, and put it down for the third, that is, the last term in the stating. 2. Then take the demanding term, and if, by increasing it, the answer would be increased, put it down for the second term, and the other first: but if by increasing it, the answer would be diminished, put it first, and yds. qrs. the other in the middle, for the second term. 3. This being done, reduce the first and second terms, when necessary, to the same denomination, and the third to the lowest denomination mentioned in it. 4. Then multiply the second and third terms together, and divide the product by the first term, and the quotient will be the answer in the same denomination as that to which the third term was reduced, and may then be reduced to any denomination required. This rule, as ought always to be the case, includes both direct and inverse proportion: when, by increasing the demanding term, the answer is increased, it is a case of direct proportion; the contrary indicates inverse proportion, and consequently the terms of the ratio are inverted. The most useful contractions are the two following: 1. If the first term, and either of the others, be divided or multiplied by the same number, and the results used in the operation, the answer will not be altered; and by this means the work may often be shortened. 2. When convenient, multiply and divide as in Compound Multiplication yds. qrs. £. S. 41 1 :: 2 16 4 20 165 2. With the Contractions. 8 3: 41 1 2 16 4 4 In this example £2 16s. being the term of supposition correspondent to the number required, is put down for the third time; 41 yds, 1 qr. is the demanding term, and if it were made greater, the answer would be greater, and therefore it is put for the middle term, and the other stands first, according to the second article of the Rule; the other parts of the operation are performed as usual. To exemplify the two rules for contraction, the example is worked again; the first and second terms are divided by 5, and the results 7 and 33 are used according to the directions in the first rule for contractions; also the third term is multiplied, and the product divided, as in Compound Multiplication and Division, by the second method of contracting. Ex. 2. How many yards of Matting, 2 feet 6 inches broad, will cover a |