LECTURE XII

THE PONTIFICES AND THE SECULARISATION OF

RELIGION

Historical facts about the Pontifices in this period; a powerful

exclusive "collegium " taking charge of the ius divinum. The

legal side of their work; they administered the oldest rules of

law, which belonged to that ius. New ideas of law after

Etruscan period; increasing social complexity and its effect on

legal matters; result, publication of rules of law, civil and

religious, in XII. Tables, and abolition of legal monopoly of

Pontifices. But they keep control of (1) procedure, (2) inter-

pretation, till end of fourth century B.C. Publication of Fasti

and Legis actiones; the college opened to Plebeians. Work of

Pontifices in third century: (1) admission of new deities, (2)

compilation of annals, (3) collection of religious formulae.

General result; formalisation of religion; and secularisation of

pontifical influence

PAGE

270-291

LECTURE XIII

THE AUGURS AND THE ART OF DIVINATION

Divination a universal practice: its relation to magic. Want of a

comprehensive treatment of it. Its object at Rome: to assure

oneself of the pax deorum; but it was the most futile method

used. Private divination; limited and discouraged by the State,

except in the form of family auspicia. Public divination ;

auspicia needed in all State operations; close connection with

imperium. The augurs were skilled advisers of the magistrates,

but could not themselves take the auspices. Probable result of

this: Rome escaped subjection to a hierarchy. Augurs and

auspicia become politically important, but cease to belong to

religion. State divination a clog on political progress. Sinister

influence on Rome of Etruscan divination; history of the haru-

spices

292-313

LECTURE XIV

THE HANNIBALIC WAR

Tendency towards contempt of religious forms in third century B.C.;

disappears during this war.
place, i.e. fear and anxiety.

Religio in the old sense takes its
This takes the form of reporting

PAGE

prodigia; account of these in 218 B.C., and of the prescriptions

supplied by Sibylline books. Fresh outbreak of religio after

battle of Trasimene; lectisternium of 216, without distinction of

Greek and Roman deities; importance of this. Religious panic

after battle of Cannae ; extraordinary religious measures, includ-

ing human sacrifice. Embassy to Delphi and its result; symp-

toms of renewed confidence. But fresh and alarming outbreak

in 213; met with remarkable skill. Institution of Apolline

games. Summary of religious history in last years of the war:

gratitude to the gods after battle of Metaurus. Arrival of the

Great Mother of Phrygia at Rome. Hannibal leaves Italy. 314-334

LECTURE XV

AFTER THE HANNIBALIC WAR

Religion used to support Senatorial policy in declaring war (1) with

Philip of Macedon, (2) with Antiochus of Syria; but this is not

the old religion. Use of prodigia and Sibylline oracles to secure

political and personal objects; mischief caused in this way.

Growth of individualism; rebellion of the individual against the

ius divinum. Examples of this from the history of the priest-

hoods; strange story of a Flamen Dialis. The story of the

introduction of Bacchic rites in 186 B.C.; interference of the

Senate and Magistrates, and significance of this. Strange

attempt to propagate Pythagoreanism; this also dealt with by

the government. Influence of Ennius and Plautus, and of trans-

lations from Greek comedy, on the dying Roman religion

335-356

LECTURE XVI

GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ROMAN RELIGION

Religious destitution of the Roman in second century B.C. in regard

to (1) his idea of God, (2) his sense of Duty. No help from

Epicurism, which provided no religious sanction for conduct;

Lucretius, and Epicurean idea of the Divine. Arrival of Stoicism

at Rome; Panaetius and the Scipionic circle. Character of

Scipio. The religious side of Stoicism; it teaches a new doctrine

of the relation of man to God. Stoic idea of God as Reason,

and as pervading the universe; adjustment of this to Roman

idea of numina. Stoic idea of Man as possessing Reason, and

so partaking the Divine nature. Influence of these two ideas on

the best type of Roman; they appeal to his idea of Duty, and

ennoble his idea of Law. Weak points in Roman Stoicism: (1)

doctrine of Will, (2) neglect of emotions and sympathy. It

failed to rouse an “enthusiasm of humanity”

357-379

LECTURE XVII

MYSTICISM-IDEAS OF A FUTURE LIFE

PAGE

Early Pythagoreanism in S. Italy; its reappearance in last century

B.C. under the influence of Posidonius, who combined Stoicism

with Platonic Pythagoreanism. Cicero affected by this revival;

his Somnium Scipionis and other later works. His mysticism

takes practical form on the death of his daughter; letters to

Atticus about a fanum. Individualisation of the Manes; free-

dom of belief on such questions. Further evidence of Cicero's

tendency to mysticism at this time (45 B.C.), and his belief in a

future life. But did the ordinary Roman so believe? Question

whether he really believed in the torments of Hades. Proba-

bility of this explanation to be found in the influence of

Etruscan art and Greek plays on primitive Roman ideas of the

dead. Mysticism in the form of astrology; Nigidius Figulus 380-402

LECTURE XVIII

RELIGIOUS FEELING IN THE POEMS OF VIRGIL

Virgil sums up Roman religious experience, and combines it with

hope for the future. Sense of depression in his day; want of

sympathy and goodwill towards men. Virgil's sympathetic out-

look; shown in his treatment of animals, Italian scenery, man's

labour, and man's worship. His idea of pietas. The theme of

the Aeneid; Rome's mission in the world, and the pietas needed

to carry it out. Development of the character of Aeneas; his

pietas imperfect in the first six books, perfected in the last six,

resulting in a balance between the ideas of the Individual and

the State. Illustration of this from the poem. Importance of

Book vi., which describes the ordeal destined to perfect the pietas

of the hero. The sense of Duty never afterwards deserts him;

his pietas enlarged in a religious sense

403-427

LECTURE XIX

THE AUGUSTAN REVIVAL

Connection of Augustus and Virgil. Augustus aims at re-establishing
the national pietas, and securing the pax deorum by means of the
ius divinum. How this formed part of his political plans.
Temple restoration and its practical result. Revival of the
ancient ritual; illustrated from the records of the Arval Brethren.

PAGE

The new element in it; Caesar-worship; but Augustus was content

with the honour of re-establishing the pax deorum. Celebration

of this in the Ludi saeculares, 17 B.C. Our detailed knowledge

of this festival; meaning of saeculum; description of the ludi,

and illustration of their meaning from the Carmen saeculare of

Horace. Discussion of the performance of this hymn by the

choirs of boys and girls
428-451

LECTURE XX

CONCLUSION

Religious ingredients in Roman soil likely to be utilised by Chris-

tianity. The Stoic ingredient; revelation of the Universal, and

ennobling of Individual. The contribution of Mysticism; pre-

paration for Christian eschatology. The contribution of Virgil ;

sympathy and sense of Duty. The contribution of Roman

religion proper: (1) sane and orderly character of ritual, (2)

practical character of Latin Christianity visible in early Christian

writings, (3) a religious vocabulary, e.g. religio, pietas, sanctus,

sacramentum. But all this is but a slight contribution; essential

difference between Christianity and all that preceded it in Italy;

illustration from the language of St. Paul

452-472

APPENDIX

I. ON THE USE OF HUTS OR BOOTHS IN RELIGIOUS RITUAL. 473

II. PROF. DEUBNER'S THEORY OF THE LUPERCALIA.

478

III. THE PAIRS OF DEITIES IN GELLIUS xiii. 23

IV. THE EARLY USAGE OF THE WORDS IUS AND FAS

V. THE WORSHIP OF SACRED UTENSILS .

486

489

INDEX .

491

LECTURE I

INTRODUCTORY

I WAS invited to prepare these lectures, on Lord Gifford's foundation, as one who has made a special study of the religious ideas and practice of the Roman people. So far as I know, the subject has not been touched upon as yet by any Gifford lecturer. We are in these days interested in every form of religion, from the most rudimentary to the most highly developed; from the ideas of the aborigines of Australia, which have now become the common property of anthropologists, to the ethical and spiritual religions of civilised man. Yet it is remarkable how few students of the history of religion, apart from one or two specialists, have been able to find anything instructive in the religion of the Romans-of the Romans, I mean, as distinguished from that vast collection of races and nationalities which eventually came to be called by the name of Rome. At the Congress for the History of Religions held at Oxford in 1908, out of scores of papers read and offered, not more than one or two even touched on the early religious ideas of the most practical and powerful people that the world has ever known.

This is due, in part at least, to the fact that just when Roman history begins to be of absorbing interest, and fairly well substantiated by evidence, the Roman religion, as religion, has already begun to lose its vitality, its purity, its efficacy. It has become overlaid with foreign rites and ideas, and it has also become a religious monopoly of the