first cause of all things. Of these the first predominates, and in all transformations of form in the secondary elements-earth, air and fire - preserves its characteristics. In mechanical separation and union, or through active contraction and dilatation, of these elements everything which exists has its origin. Thales is said to have been the first to introduce geometry from Egypt. Anaximander of Miletus (born B. C. 611) assumed undivided matter (ò änstpo) as the primary principle, from which heat, cold, dryness and moisture developed themselves in such a way that the kindred principles found themselves united (elective affinity). On the other hand Anaximenes of Miletus (B. C. 570-500) considered air in its essence the unchangeable principle of all things, ascribing to it immeasurability, endlessness and constant motion as characteristics. Either he or Anaximander brought the sun-dial into Greece. Heraclitus of Ephesus (about 556-460 B. C.), "the weeping philosopher", "the obscure". assumes fire as the primal matter, and enmity (zókspos, pts) of the minutest parts as the cause of decay, while their friendship (ópokoria, siprjpy) is the ground of origin of all things. An anima mundi is the sculptor of the equally fiery human soul, which latter is derived from the former in respiration. He derives the embryo from the male semen alone, assigning to the uterus simply the role of a place of development. Far more important is the philosophy of Anaxagoras of Clazomenæ in Asia Minor (B. C. 500-428), the teacher of Pericles (died of the plague B. C. 429), and likewise an able astronomer. He regarded the planets and the moon as bodies analogous to the earth, and considered the moon to be inhabited. He was a kind of ancient Galilei, inasmuch as he was accused and convicted of impiety by the Eumolpida on account of his doctrines, but escaped punishment by flight. Anaxagoras assumed matter and spirit (55) as the elementary principles of the world, of which the first consisted of innumerable, similar most minute particles (Homœomeriæ), transformed by the creative activity of the spirit into animate and inanimate objects, and governed as dead matter. His physiological and pathological views are as follows: The animal body, by means of a kind of affinity, appropriates to itself from the nutritive supply the portions similar to itself. Males originate in the right, females in the left side of the uterus. Diseases are occasioned by the bile, which penetrates into the blood-vessels, the lungs and the pleura. Diogenes of Apollonia (B. C. 550-460), the founder of a theory of vessels, in which are contained intimations of the left ventricle, the aorta, the carotid and the pulse, assumed air as the fundamental element, from which matter and spirit, all things in general, are formed, and from which everything receives life. In the animal body it goes from the left ventricle into all the vessels, and mingles there with the blood. The most important influence upon later times was exercised by Empedocles of Agrigentum (B. C. 504– 443), who assumed the four elements, Water, Air, Fire and Earth. Nothing can either originate or be destroyed, but all changes are simply those of form. Every thing originates in the friendship (gría) everything is destroyed by the enmity, (i. e. separation) of these elements. Men, beasts and plants he considered demons punished by banishment, who, through purification, might again attain to a residence in the Sphairos, the seat of the gods. It was in accordance with these views that he treated all diseases by theurgic means.1 The sex of the embryo was determined by the predominance of heat or cold in the parents. He believed that the embryo was nourished through the navel, and to him we owe the terms amnion and chorion. 1. However he also banished epidemics by building fires and draining the water from swamps, a proceeding which Nægeli has recently again recommended on the principles of bacteriology. In contrast with Homer he understood the etiology of pestilential diseases, and introduced a treatment in some respects quite realistic, leaving out the gods and working himself.

Death, however, resulted from the extinction of heat, the effect of separation of the elements. Expiration arose from motion of the blood upwards, and consequently of the air outwards; inspiration, in an inverse way. He desired to be considered a god and to appear, like a god, in the dress of a charlatan (Gregorovius). He is said to have raised a woman from the dead (most of these people raised from the dead are women!), and to have gone into heaven in a blaze of glory, i. e to have been received among the gods. The

ITALIAN SCHOOL, OR SCHOOL OF CROTONA, (ESTABLISHED ABOUT B. c. 550), was founded by Pythagoras of Samos (B. C. 580–489) at Crotona in Magna Græcia, whither he had fled before Polycrates, the tyrant of his native land. He had visited Egypt and acquired in that birthplace of mathematics the principles of his doctrine, - another evidence of the influence of that primeval home of civilization upon Grecian science. His teacher was Onnuphris (Unnofre) of Heliopolis. Pythagoras formed at the outset a sect of his followers, who should make it their study to rule their whole life by definite principles, among which were included some of a medicinal or dietetic character. Number, as the purest conception, formed the basis of his philosophy. Unity was the symbol of perfection, the first cause of all things, God himself. The number 2 represented the material world. The whole universe was based upon the number 12, which is divisible into thrice 4: whence we have 3 worlds and 4 spheres. These in turn result from the 4 elements, water, air, fire and earth. The corporeal elements are comprised in the number 10, in which again each single number has its counterpart. Bodies originate under various combinations of the endless and unendless, the direct and indirect, unity and plurality, right and left, male and female the motionless and the moving, the straight and curved, the bright and dark, the good and evil, the square and parallelogram, opposites 10 by 10 together. All this united forms the Music of the Spheres. The animal soul is an emanation from the anima mundi, and consists of the intellect, the reason and the soul proper. God is the soul universal, light of lights, author of himself. Between the two exists a gradation of higher or lower beings (demons). Man is the lowest of the higher and the highest of the lower beings. He was the first among the Greeks to teach the immortality of the soul and the decay of the body after death, though others affirm that the same thing was taught by his master Pherecydes of Syracuse. After death the human soul ascends or descends, the former for reward, the latter for punishment: hence the doctrine of metempsychosis. Nature is capable of the highest perfection. - The basis of life is heat. New life originates from the semen (which springs from the male brain and contains a warm halitus) together with the moisture of the brain of the female. The semen is the foam of the noblest blood. The good is like unity, godlike. Striving after this gives moral health. Diet and gymnastics however serve to maintain physical health. In diseases, which are occasioned by the demons, prayer, offerings and music to restore the harmony of the spirits are useful. Magic virtues reside in certain plants, e. g. the cabbage (a special food of the sect), squill and anise. Surgical interference is inadmissible; salves and poultices, on the other hand, are allowable. This medley of high sounding, but groundless, sentences main⚫tained great influence in succeeding ages even in medicine. Among the pupils of Pythagoras Alemæon of Crotona (Bruttium, in Magna Græcia, B. C 500,) was the most famous in medicine. He was manifestly the first (animal) anatomist and is said to have discovered the optic nerves and the Eustachian tubes. In physiology he likewise admits the origin of the semen from the brain, and believes that the head of the fœtus is the first part developed. Health depends upon harmony, disease upon discord, of the component parts of the body, of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, bitterness and sweetness etc.,-a doctrine amplified in later systems of medicine.

His theory of hearing, of which Theophrastus, of Eresus, (according to Albert) gives an account, is very well worth notice: "We hear with the ear because it contains a vacuum, and this occasions the sound. In the cavity, however, the sound is generated, the air resounding against it." In generation both parents furnish semen, and whichever of the two supplies the most, this one determines the sex of the embryo. In consequence of the banishment of the Pythagoreans from Crotona (about B. C. 500), such philosophic physicians, so-called "Periodeutæ" (itinerant physicians), spread themselves abroad in all directions. Among them Democedes, court-physician of Polycrates of Samos (535-522 B. C.), was especially notable. He received an annual salary of about $2,000 from Polycrates, and after his death went to the court of Persia, where he cured Darius of a dislocation, which his Egyptian physicians did not understand how to relieve, and his wife, Atossa, of an abscess of the breast. Other distinguished "Periodeuta" were Acron of Agrigentum, who put an end to the plague of Athens, though this is also ascribed to Hippocrates, Metrodorus and Epicharmus (540-450 B. C.).

THE ELEATIC SCHOOL

was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, in Elis, about B. C. 450. The Eleatics held God and the world to be one and the same thing, and were also pantheists.

THE MATERIALISTIC (ATOMIC) PHILOSOPHY (B. C. 450),

of Leucippus, a contemporary of Pythagoras, and of Democritus of Abdera in Thrace, the laughing philosopher" (460-360 B. C.), one of the greatest spirits of all time, rejected creative reason, and replaced it by necessity. It sought in matter the foundation of the world and of thought; indeed it professed to find the principle of all things in the infinitely minute, identical, not eternal nor illimitably divisible, but still infinitely numerous Atoms. Within these reside order, position, form and motion. They differ in size, and to this difference their weight corresponds. The differences of the elements, fire, water, air and earth, depend upon differences in the form and size of the atoms. The soul consists of round and smooth atoms, and its expressions, like life in general, are a result of the motion of the atoms. These smooth and round atoms exist in the whole body. In special parts they are particularly active, so that the heart e. g. occasions wrath; the liver, desire; the brain, thought. The perceptions of the senses originate in the motion of the atoms of external objects (whose image they are) toward our organs of sense, and produce in these organs a palpable impression, the perception. Spirit and body are identical; a healthy condition of the brain implies mental health; and disease of the same organ implies mental disease, a point of view not reached again until the 18th century. No medical writings of Democritus are at present extant. They related to epidemics (which he explained by a downfall of the atoms of destroyed heavenly bodies), and also to fever, diet, prognosis, hydrophobia etc.

In a considerably less degree the following systems also were concerned in the development of the theory of medicine. The School of Sophists, the founders of which were Gorgias of Leontium2 (B. C. 485-378), and Protagoras of Abdera3 (B. C.

1. According to Herodotus, Polycrates brought the physicians of Crotona into reputation. Next to them in fame stood those of Cyrene.

2. In Sicily, whose population, according to Gregorovius, even at the present day, has sophistical tendencies.

Man is the measure of all things; of
which are not, that they are not.
(He might have added, "Doubt-

3. As an example of his precepts, we quote: those which are, that they are; of those Contradictory affirmations are equally true." ful things are uncertain." H.)

489-404), degraded philosophy into mere dialectic artifices, in order to utilize the masses both politically and materially for their own advantage. Their greatest

opponent, though himself educated in their art, was Socrates (B. C. 469-399), a contemporary of Hippocrates, and the profound creator of a purer conception of morality, who fell a victim to Athenian intolerance and persecution. The pupils of Socrates, Euclides of Megara (about B. C. 400), and Phœdon of Eretria, in Eubœa, discarded completely the perceptions of the senses, and allowed them no existence whatever. Aristippus of Cyrene (B. C. 435), however, was the founder of the Cyrenaic School, which rejected all systems of morals and declared pleasure the highest and only good. On the other hand, Antisthenes of Athens (born B C. 444) preached absolute contempt for riches, the vanities of this world, and for science itself, and thus became the founder of the School of Cynics, whose best known member was his pupil, Diogenes (B. C. 414–324).

In concluding this section it may be remarked that in Greece it was not entirely devoid of danger to be possessed of an eminent mind, and particularly to teach in opposition to the superstition and credulity of the masses and the prejudices and authority of the priests. As early as B. C. 432, on motion of Diopeithes, a special paragraph against those who denied God, and studied nature, was incorporated in the legal code of Athens.

3. SCHOOLS OF THE ASCLEPIADE AND GYMNASTS.

From societies founded by Esculapius, or rather from medical associations simply named after him, proceeded those medical guilds or "faculties" (to explain ancient economy by our own), which are distinguished as the schools of the Asclepiade. These were devoted to medical instruction and practice, and divided their doctrines into exoteric and esoteric Indeed medicine at this period was rather a faculty united with the individual and maintained as a secret, than a science possessed of fixed rules and diffused by writings. It was chiefly a system bequeathed immediately from father to son or to pupil; an art preserved and transmitted by oral instruction from man to man.—In these schools of the Asclepiadæ (as in the later schools of the Jews and the Arabians, and the Christian Cathredal schools) instruction in medicine began at an early age (10-12 years), and was imparted not solely to those who belonged by birth to the family of a physician, but also to others who were merely adopted, in order that they might select a teacher from this family, who instructed them in return for a certain honorarium. At the conclusion of their course of instruction the pupils were compelled to take, and subscribe to, an oath, the words of which we here introduce as the oldest written monument of Grecian medicine:

"I swear by Apollo, the physician, by Esculapius, by Hygeia, Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and stipulation, to reckon him who teaches me this art equally dear to me as my parents; to share my substance with him and relieve his necessities, if required; to 1. The Sophists were the first teachers in Greece who imparted instruction for money. Their fees were often very high. Gorgias demanded 190 minae (about $3,350) from each pupil. Yet it was regarded as a disgrace that they took pay for instruction; and, as the same thing was done by teachers of medicine, it is probable that the latter did not belong to the higher classes of Grecian freemen.

look upon his offspring on the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of this art to my own sons, to those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to no others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of of my patients; and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous; I will give no deadly medicine to any one, if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give a woman a pessary to produce an abortion.1 With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practise my art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further, from the seduction of females and males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such things should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this oath inviolate, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of my art, respected by all men at all times! But, should I trespass and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot!"

Such schools of the Asclepiada' existed in Rhodes, Crotona in lower Italy, and Cyrene, now Barca, on the northern coast of Africa. The most celebrated, however, were those of Cnidos in Asia Minor, and Cos (now Stanchio), one of the Sporades.

The school of Cnidos (in Caria) is said to have laid especial weight upon the subjective statements of the sick, the relation of the symptoms to individual parts of the body and the use of active remedies, especially drastics (coccum Gnidium, the berries of the Daphne Gnidium). Less attention was devoted to diet. It cultivated the science of diagnostics and recognized some auscultatory signs, e. g. the pleuritic friction sound (!), and satisfactorily distinguished many diseases, such as phthisis, typhus, diseases of the urinary bladder, the kidneys, the bile etc. The Cnidians also performed even major operations, like trepanning the ribs, excision of the kidneys (recently revived as something new!) etc., and though always empirics, they were bold operators. In opposition to the physicians of Cos, however, they discarded venesection. The Cnidian Sentences' are supposed

1. Latin "neque simili ratione mulieri pessum subdititium ad fœtum corrumpendum exhibebo."

2. There were guild-schools for the bards also at this period. With regard to these, Mæhly (Geschichte der antiken Lit.) says: “But how were these bards educated? By family and oral traditions. These bard-schools represented simply an enlarged family union, which, perhaps, felt itself entwined by the ethical bond of common duties. That a definite technique, with fixed rules, was thus bequeathed, is clear." The same thing, mutatis mutandis, is doubtless true, also, for the contemporary schools of the Asclepiada. In the latter, of course, Hippocrates filled the place of Homer.

3. The "Cnidian Sentences" was probably a collection of aphorisms culled from the votive tablets of the temple of Esculapius, at Cnidos. Euryphon, a senior contemporary of the great Hippocrates, is said to have been the compiler. They