flat-topped or even-formed bergs it can readily be inferred from the specific gravity of ice that they at times descend fully 1200 to 1500 feet, or more, into the abyss of the ocean; and it is a common condition to find the larger bergs 'stranded' or anchored at this depth to the floor of the sea. The pinnacled or fancy-shaped bergs are usually those which have undergone considerable weathering or beating up by the sea, and are thus necessarily of smaller size than those of even contour. It is a common statement that the Antarctic bergs differ from those of the Arctic by their larger and more generally tabular form; but these differences are not fundamental, and are hardly more than comparative. But it may be questioned whether all the larger detached masses of ice in the Antarctic Ocean are, indeed, true glacial bergs; many of them might well be only accumulated sea-ice, formed by accretional growth, independent of any assisting land-mass. The source of practically all the icebergs of Arctic and sub-Arctic waters is Greenland, from whose ice-cap and névé radiate off hundreds of glaciers, the vast majority of which-at least those of larger size reach the sea, either directly or through the long fjords which extend 20 to 70 miles into the land. One or more of the glaciers of Melville Bay present ocean fronts of 25 or 30 miles, and there are a number of nearly equal size in Western, Southwestern, and Eastern Greenland.

Owing to the northward set of the West Greenland current, the bergs of this side are carried first to the north, and it is only at about the 74th or 75th parallel that they begin to make their way westward to come down on the ‘American side. Many of the East Greenland bergs follow in the trail of these, rounding the southern apex of the great insular land-mass. The lowest point reached by the bergs in North-Atlantic waters is about 40° in the western half of the basin; eastward, the zone of distribution, following largely in the course of Gulf-Stream drift, rises sharply northward, and entirely clears the coast of Scandinavia.

Icebergs are apt to carry much detrital material with them, the remains or parts of the glacial moraines which were formed on land. These, on the melting of the ice, naturally find their way to the bottom of the sea, whether deep or shallow, and these help to build up a bowlder clay deposit,' somewhat similar to the basal till of glaciers. The stranding of bergs on rockmasses also tends to bring about grooving and polishing, again similar to what is produced by moving land-ice (glaciers). Consult Tyndall, The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice, and Glaciers (New York, 1872). See WATER; MELTING-POINT; FREEZING-Point; Glacier; RefriGER

ATION.

ICE, LAW OF. After ice has been harvested it is personalty, and is subject to the rules of law governing that form of property. Before it is harvested it is deemed realty for most purposes, although some courts have held that a contract for the sale of all the ice on a certain pond is to be treated as a contract for the sale of a chattel, and not of an interest in real estate.

If the land beneath a particular body of water is subject to private ownership, the ice that forms on the water belongs to the owner of such land, and he has exclusive authority to gather or dispose of it. Hence a lease of the land or a con

veyance of the fee carries to the tenant or to the grantee the ownership of the ice which forms during the term of the lease, or which exists at the date of the conveyance. It is in the nature of an accession to the land, being an increment arising from a formation over it, and is a part of the real estate under the rule that the ownership thereof extends indefinitely upward from the soil.

The landowner may grant to another the right to take ice from private waters, as a profit à prendre; that is, as a right to take the products or proceeds of land. Accordingly, the grant of a half-acre of land adjoining a mill-pond with the exclusive right to take the ice from the pond attaches this right as a profit à prendre to the half-acre, and it will pass to a second grantee of the half-acre as an appurtenance thereto. On the other hand, the landowner does not part with his right to ice which forms upon a mill-pond by granting to the mill-owner the privilege of flooding the land in question and maintaining a pond thereon. The ice attends the ownership of the soil, not the easement of covering it with water; and if the mill owner needlessly draws off the water for the sole purpose of destroying the ice or preventing its formation, he is liable in damages to the landowner. Again, the owner of land under a private stream is entitled to dam the stream and take ice therefrom, provided such use does not unreasonably interfere with the rights of riparian owners below him to the use of the water.

A riparian owner's right to ice on navigable rivers depends upon his ownership of the land under them.

In States where the fee of such rivers is vested in the public the adjoining landowner has no title to the ice, and it belongs to the first appropriator. In other States, where riparian owners are accorded title to the land under navigable waters, they can maintain trespass against any one taking the ice without their consent. At times ice-covered streams or lakes are used as highways of travel, and the question has arisen whether the harvesting of ice upon such a thoroughfare amounts to a nuisance, as an unlawful obstruction to travel. The courts have given this answer: In the absence of legislation on the subject, the right of travel and the right of harvesting ice on navigable waters are public and are to be exercised reasonably. What is a reasonable use of either right depends upon the relative benefits to the community from its exercise. If the privilege of harvesting ice is of greater importance than that of traveling upon it, the latter cannot be set up to prevent or abridge the exercise of the former.

The right to harvest ice forming upon public waters is not private, but public or common. Any citizen may enter such ice fields and take what he pleases, so long as he does not unlawfully interfere with the like right of others. What acts amount to an appropriation of ice on public waters is a question upon which the courts are not agreed. One view is that an appropriation is made by marking and staking off a plot of ice, and preparing the surface for cutting. The other view is that a person does not gain any property rights in such a plot of ice until he has actually reduced it to possession. The subject is regulated in some States by statute. Consult: Gould, The Law of Waters, Including Riparian Rights (Chicago, 1900);

wwwwwwwww Saw.

Two-Prong Fork Bar.

Three-Prong Fork Bar.

Four-Prong Fork Bar. Calking Bar.

Breaking Ban

FIG. 2. ICE TOOLS.

together, with sawdust or other insulating material above the final layer, and between the ice and the outer walls of the ice-house. The icehouses are generally tall structures, with outer walls composed of one to three compartments. Probably the most approved plan is to have an outer compartment in which the air is allowed to circulate; an inner or dead-air compartment; and a central space packed tightly with sawdust. The bottom of the ice-house must be well drained, and ample provision must be made for ventilation in order to prevent the accumulation of

VOL. X.-28.

Hook Chisel.

Splitting Chisel.

Needle Bar.

Trimmer Bar.

FIG. 3. ICE TOOLS.

Besides the ice tools already named (snowscraper, ice-plane, marker, and plow) the following may be mentioned: Augers and tapping-axes for inspecting the ice and for draining it of surface water; saws; forked and pronged and chisel and needle bars, for separating the cakes after the markers and plows have done their work; trimmer bars for squaring the cakes, and hooks, grapples, and forks, for pushing them to the elevator; chain scoop-nets and sieve shovels, for removing slush ice from the channels; hoisting, drag, and edging tongs, adzes and longhandled chisels for packing the ice in the houses; saws and bars for loosening the ice preparatory to shipment from the houses; and, finally, delivery wagons, tongs, saws, axes, shaves, and scales.

ARTIFICIAL ICE. A sketch of the development of ice-making apparatus and descriptions of the principles and practices involved will be found under REFRIGERATION. The following figures regarding the growth of the industry in this country are taken from the section on the Manufacture of Ice Industry in the Twelfth Census of the United States. The first ice factory of importance in this country was erected at New Orleans in 1866. In 1870 three other factories were included in the census returns. The number of establishments reported increased to 25 in 1880, 222 in 1890, and 787 in 1900. The total capital invested in these 787 plants was $38.204.054, and the value of the products was $13,874,513. These figures, like those previously given for natural ice, do not include the hundreds of plants making ice exclusively for their

own use, such as breweries and cold-storage houses. Of the 787 plants reported in 1900, 571 used the compressor, and 216 the absorption system. (See REFRIGERATION.) The total product of the 787 factories was 4,294,439 tons, of which 4,139,764 tons, or 96.4 per cent., was can ice, and only 154,675 tons plate ice. The Middle States produced more ice than any other group, the amount being 1,574,980 tons, as compared with 1,414,158 tons for the Southern States, and only 40,059 tons for the New England States. The average value of the ice at the plants, for the whole country, was $3.11 per ton for can ice, and $2.85 for plate ice. As a rule, the Southern States now depend wholly upon the manufactured product for their ice-supply, the few possible exceptions being some of the coast cities. As one goes farther North, natural ice comes more and more into competition with the manufactured article, until at the extreme North it actually, or prac tically, displaces the latter. But the use of manufactured ice has increased rapidly of late and is continually extending toward the North. SANITARY ASPECTS. The sanitary quality of ice-supplies depends chiefly upon the presence or absence of disease germs, chiefly those of typhoid fever, in the original water, and upon the effect of freezing upon such germs. In addition there is the possibility that manufactured ice may become contaminated during the freezing process by sick or careless workmen, and that any ice may be fouled while it is being distributed to consumers. Proper washing of ice before domes tic use, care not to bring ice in contact with food or water, and proper supervision of ice factories, would go far toward preventing danger from what may be termed incidental contamination. The water from which artificial ice is made is frequently distilled or filtered, or both. In general, it may be said that artificial ice should be made from none but naturally pure water or from that which has been purified, and that natural ice should not be harvested from polluted streams or lakes. It may be noted, however, that natural ice, when formed in fairly deep and quiet water, eliminates much of the impurities while freezing, and that recent bacterial studies show that after a few weeks practically all bacteria, and particularly the dangerous ones, disappear. Under anything like carefully guarded conditions, therefore, the chance of typhoid infection by means of ice is small. In the case of artificial ice, the freezing process, being from the outside in, concentrates the impurities at and near the centre of the cake.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult Hile, The Ice Crop (New York, 1892); and for the sanitary aspects of the subject, consult: Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1889, 1892, and 1900; the Report of the Boston Board of Health for 1901; and Prudden. Drinking Water and Ice Supplies (New York, 1900).

ICELAND. An island and Danish colony in the North Atlantic, on the northern edge of the temperate zone. The Arctic Circle cuts the two most northern points of the island, which extends south to latitude 63° 35′ N., and from longitude 13° 23' to 24° 35′ W. (Map: Denmark, F 1). It is about 600 miles distant from Norway, and 250 from Greenland. Its area is 40,456 square miles, of which only about two-fifths is habitable. The southern coast has no indentations, but the west, north, and east coasts are

broken to a remarkable extent by numerous deep fiords, skirted by many small islands. In the south the coastal lands are low and sandy, but elsewhere the coasts are frowning and precipitous.

Iceland is a land of plateaus, built up of volcanic masses of old and recent origin; formations dating from before the Tertiary Period are nowhere found. The average height of the land is from 1600 to 2000 feet. The few low grounds are small, and occupy only about one-fourteenth of the total area. Only these low grounds, the coasts, and some narrow valleys are inhabited, while the extensive highlands are quite unfit for settlement; the outer edges only are utilized as summer pastures for sheep. Basalt and volcanic breccia are the component rocks; the latter is found in the centre and extends down to the south, while the greater part of the west, north, and east coasts consists of basalt.

Above the elevated plains of the interior rise the broad domes of the ice-covered mountains; the largest of them rest on breccia, and where the glaciers descend almost to the sea, as on the south coast, there are no fiords or harbors, for these have been filled up by detritus. The basaltic regions, on the contrary, are intersected by numerous fiords, and contain many good harbors, often lying behind narrow tongues of land, which probably are old glacier moraines.

There are many lakes, but most of them are small. In the valleys of the basaltic tracts are deep lakes hollowed out of the solid rocks, as, for instance, the Lagarfljot, the surface of which lies 85 feet above sea-level, while its bottom is 275 feet below. In the highlands one finds several groups of moraine lakes, and in recent times large sheets of water have been formed by the damming up of glacier streams. Certain lakes fill hollows formed by the sinking of lava streams, while others are typical crater lakes. During a journey in 1889 Herr Thoroddsen discovered to the west of the great snow-field of Vatnajökull, a grand and beautiful group of crater lakes. This country is remarkable for its natural beauty; the whole surface is covered with colossal craters filled with water, and would resemble a landscape in the moon were it not for the greenish pools that show themselves everywhere among the coal-black lava, the brownish mounds of ashes, and the red heaps of scoriæ.

The glaciers of Iceland cover an area of 5200 square miles. The climate is peculiarly suited for the development of large glaciers, for the air is keen, cold, and damp. On the southeast coast the rainfall is considerable, and here lies the great Vatnajökull. 3100 square miles in area. The humidity on the coast is much greater than it is in the interior highlands, as is shown by the height of the snow-line. On the south side of Vatnajökull the snow-line descends to 1970 feet, while on the north side it is 4270 feet above the sea. The Breidamerkurjökull glacier advances on the south to 65 feet above the sea, while the lowest glacier on the north terminates at an altitude of 2500. Large areas (4300 to 4600 square miles) in the very centre of the island are covered with lava of recent origin. The higher lava-fields are almost entirely devoid of vegetation, and present a most dreary appearance. The most extensive lava desert is the Odadahraun, to the north of Vatnajökull, which covers an area of over 1540 square miles, and lies 2000 to 4000 feet above

the sea. Its volume is probably more than 51 cubic miles, and it has been formed by the ejectamenta of 20 volcanoes. There are about 100 volcanoes, of which 20 have been in eruption in modern times. The best-known volcanoes are Hecla, Katla, and Askja. The crater of Askja is 16 square miles in area, and is covered with glaciers which melt in times of eruption, causing great inundations. There are many hot springs, and the geysers are famous for their intermittent eruptions of scalding water. About 75 severe earthquakes have occurred in the past century, many of which have done great damage to life and property. Several shocks in the closing years of the nineteenth century were severely felt in Reykjavik, the capital and chief

town.

The climate is not very severe, considering the high latitude, as the island is open to the ameliorating influences of the Atlantic. In the highlands of the interior it is more severe and variable; here snow-storms often occur even in the middle of summer. The winter is long and damp, the summer short and cool. A journey can seldom be commenced before July, for in spring the soil is saturated with snow-water, and the mountains and elevated plateaus covered with snow. Grass first appears on elevated spots in July, while in the highlands of the interior the scattered patches of verdure seldom yield fodder for horses before the end of August. The greatest hindrance to exploration is this scarcity of grass. The lowlands and the valleys have a great depth of rich soil, and on the field slopes grasses of several kinds mingle with the scrubby mountain birch and stunted willow, and afford luxuriant herbage for the sheep. A few mountain ashes are the only trees worthy of the name, Elymus arenarius, a species of wild corn, is grown along the sandy coasts; and Iceland moss is a lucrative article of commerce.

The fauna embraces, in seven families, 34 species of mammals, 24 of which live in the water. Seals breed around the coasts, several varieties of whales, basking sharks, and over 60 species of fishes abound in the adjacent waters, and walruses are sometimes caught. White and blue foxes are numerous and are hunted for their fur. In 1770 reindeer were imported from Denmark, and are now found wild in the interior. Polar bears frequently arrive on ice-drifts from Greenland. The horse, the cow, the sheep, dog, and cat are the domestic animals. The dog resembles the Scotch collie and the Eskimo dog. Among indigenous birds are the falcon, ptarmigan, whist ling swan, and several species of ducks. The eider-duck is especially valuable for its down, and is jealously protected.

AGRICULTURE AND OTHER INDUSTRIES. About five-sixths of the inhabitants live by horse, cattle, and sheep raising. A large part of the slopes and river valleys of the plateaus affords excellent pasture for sheep, and in the low-lying lands are extensive meadows, which, properly managed, could support twice the number of cattle that now graze on them. The island contains about 850,000 sheep and 24,000 cows. A great deal has been done latterly to improve the soil. Agricultural societies have been formed, and there are now four agricultural schools. At one time a little barley was grown, but it could not be made to pay, and therefore field cultivation has been abandoned. Horticulture, on the other hand,

makes great progress, potatoes, cabbages, and 1hubarb thrive well, and some berries, such as currants, are cultivated. Woods have never existed since the glacial period, and the brushwood of birch is less extensive than formerly, owing to the sheep. The birch is seldom higher than man, though in one place on the east side some specimens attain a height of over thirty feet. The mountain ash reaches the same height. The fishing grounds (cod, herring, flounders, whale, and seal) are frequented by English and Frencn boats. The sea is very stormy, and therefore fishing is best pursued in large and strong vessels. The fishermen of Iceland have had to content themselves with small open boats. They brave the billows of the ocean in winter with the greatest boldness and contempt of danger, and every year many lose their lives. Want of capital has prevented them from acquiring large vessels, but considerable progress has been made in this direction, and the Icelanders now possess a fair fleet of fishing smacks. Manufacturing industries, with the exception of fish oil, are utterly absent. The simpler articles of dress and necescaries of life are usually supplied by every native for himself, and the number of artisans is very small. The mineral deposits are not sufficiently large to repay exploitation. Turf is the chief fuel, but some coal is imported.

The chief exports are dried fish, wool, live sheep and horses, eider-down, salted meat, oil, and whalebone. The annual value of the exports amounts at present to over $2,000,000. The imports consist of textiles, cereals, and other foodstuffs, and have an annual value of between $2.000,000 and $2,500,000. Up to 1854 the trade of Iceland was a State monopoly of Denmark. Since then it has been free, and is now chiefly in the hands of Denmark and Great Britain. Iceland has regular steam communication every three weeks with Denmark via Leith, the port of Edinburgh. There are a number of trading stations on the island, and six commercial centres. There are few roads. In the settled districts the traveler follows bridle-paths worn by the hoofs of the small Iceland horses. But a few good roads have now been built, and some of the streams are being bridged. The people are sturdy, and have not allowed the hardships they have endured to crush them. As the farthest outpost of civilization they have always had to fight a hard battle with nature. They are of an earnest, quiet, and somewhat melancholy disposition, and as a rule very intelligent. Though the lower classes live in poor circumstances, they are very enlightened; perhaps in no other country of Europe are so many books, in proportion to the population, printed and sold as in Iceland. The island contains five printing establishments, from which issue ten newspapers and eight periodicals. During recent decades many Icelanders have emigrated to America, and have founded flourishing colonies in Manitoba. In all about 12,000 have crossed the Atlantic, but of late years the emigration has fallen off. Besides Reykjavik, the capital, with a population of about 4000, the chief settlements are Akreyri and Isafiord.

GOVERNMENT. At the head of the administration is a minister, appointed by the King of Denmark, resident at Reykjavik, and responsible to the Althing for all acts concerning Iceland. The Althing, or the Parliament of the colony, although in existence since the Norwegian occupation, had