HUME, DAVID (1711-76). An English was elected librarian to the Faculty of Advocates philosopher and historian. He was born at Edin- at a salary of £40. In 1754 he published the first burgh on April 26 (O. S.), 1711. His father was volume of the History of Great Britain, Containthe laird of Ninewells in Berwickshire, but ing the Reign of James I., and Charles I.; the David, being the youngest son, had to make his second volume appeared two years afterwards. fortune with no other assistance than an educa- Then he took up the Tudors, and, working backtion and the influence of his family. He appears ward, finished his History of England in 1762. to have studied in the University of Edinburgh In 1757 he had published Four Dissertations: when twelve years of age, but his education for the Natural History of Religion; of the Pasthe most part consisted in home reading. His sions; of Tragedy; of the Standard of Taste. In family designed the law to be his profession, and 1763 he was a member of the embassy to France he submitted to the initial steps of the proper under Lord Hertford, and there found himself practical training, but it was not a pursuit to famous. He was lionized by the frivolous society his liking. Deserting it, he experimented in a mer- ladies, fêted by the nobles, and taken by the men cantile house in Bristol, but commerce was not of letters into their friendship. After his remore congenial to him than jurisprudence, and turn he was made Under-Secretary of State he gave it a very short trial. To use his own (1767-69), and by 1769 had an income of £1000 words, "I now went over to France with a view a year. In 1770 he retired from public life and of prosecuting my studies in a country retreat, built a home in Edinburgh on a new street, which and there I laid the plan of life which I have was jocularly called 'Saint David's Street,' after steadily and successfully pursued. I resolved to him. Here he wrote My Own Life, and here he make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency died, August 25, 1776. His History of England of fortune, to maintain unimpaired my inde- became a classic as soon as it appeared; his pendency, and to regard every object as con- economic writings were a fitting prelude to those temptible except the improvement of my talent in of his friend Adam Smith (q.v.), while his literature." He spent much of the next three philosophical works roused Kant "from his dogyears at La Flèche, in intercourse with the matic slumber," gave rise by reaction to Scottish Jesuits, and then he wrote his Treatise of Human philosophy, and are the immortal text-books of Nature, which, however, he did not publish till skepticism and agnosticism. His philosophy 1739-40. It consists of three books, "Of the was but the consistent development of BerkeUnderstanding," "Of the Passions," and "Of ley's idealism. (See BERKELEY.) Berkeley had deMorals." Now one of the three or four most fa- nied the reality of matter, and had accounted for mous philosophical productions of England, at what passed for matter by making it a complex the time of its appearance "it fell deadborn of sensations and ideas, but he still held to the from the press without reaching such a distinc- reality of mind as the subject of sensations and tion as even to excite a murmur among the zeal ideas. Hume dropped out mind as Berkeley had ots," as Hume himself acknowledged, much to dropped out matter, and thus left nothing to be his mortification. He now turned to political known except 'perception' (impressions and theory, and published anonymously in 1741-42 ideas), together with certain fictions of the two volumes of Essays Moral and Political. In imagination, of which he gives no satisfactory 1744 he was a candidate for the chair of 'ethics account that can be made consistent with his and pneumatic philosophy' in the University of general position. "All the perceptions of the Edinburgh, but his Treatise had given him a human mind resolve themselves into two distinct reputation for 'heresy, deism, skepticism, athe- kinds which I shall call impressions and ideas." ism, etc.,' and the university would have none of These differ not by reason of any differences in him. In 1746 he obtained a 'very genteel' ap- the manner in which they are produced, but pointment as secretary to General Saint Clair merely in priority and liveliness. Ideas are on "10 shillings a day, perquisites, and no ex- simply those perceptions which, appearing later penses." An expedition had been planned to than similar perceptions, are less forceful and Canada, but an unsuccessful attack on L'Orient, vivid. Ideas are of two sorts, ideas of the memin France, led to a recall of the general. Two ory and ideas of the imagination. Of these the years after Hume accompanied General Saint former are the more lively, and retain, in great Clair to the Court of Turin, as secretary and measure, the order and sequence of these origaide-de-camp, and took notes of his impressions inal impressions, whereas ideas of the imaginaof Holland, Germany, and Italy. tion are fainter and are "not restrained to the same order and form with the original impressions." Ideas are associated in accordance with certain principles, viz., "Resemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cause and effect." There are no general ideas. Ideas of space are complexes of minima visibilia, or colored points, disposed in a certain manner. These points are indivisible. Ideas of time are derived from the succession of our perceptions, and as these perceptions are in the last instance indivisible, time is not infinitely divisible. No perception has any proper external, objective reference. A cause is an object precedent and contiguous to another, and so united with it in the imagination that the idea of the one determines the mind to form the idea of the other, and the impression of the one to form a more lively idea of the other. "There is no substance, hence no mind except the bundle of per In 1748, during his absence on the Continent, he published his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. The following year he returned to England; in 1751 he gave to the public the Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, and in 1752 the Political Discourses, said to have been the 'cradle of political economy.' At the same time he also composed Dialogues on Natural Religion, which, however, were not published till after his death. By this time he had put by enough money to gain him an income of £50 a year. Besides he had "a hundred pounds' worth of books, great stores of linens and fine clothes, and rear £100 in his pocket, along with order, frugality, a strong spirit of independency, good health, a contented humor, and an unabated love of study," as he himself relates. In 1751 he had removed to Edinburgh, and a year later he mons in 1812 as Tory member of Parliament for the Borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis. ceptions. A true skeptic will be diffident of his philosophical doubts, as well as of his philosophical convictions." In ethics, Hume was a utilitarian. (See UTILITARIANISM.) Self-love cannot be the sole basis of reasonable action. 'Crucial experiments' render such a view impossible. Sympathy is a real principle in human nature, and reflections on public interest and utility are the sole sources of the moral approbation paid to fidelity, justice, veracity, integrity. Sympathy does the work it does because it is our pleasure in other persons' pleasures and our displeasure in their pains. Thus our own pleasure and pain are the springs of action, but they are not the ends of action. A complete edition of Hume's philosophical works was published by Green and Grose (4 vols., London, 1874-75); his Treatise and two Enquiries in two volumes by Selby-Bigge (Oxford, 1889-94); his History has appeared in almost innumerable editions; his autobiography was edited by Adam Smith (London, 1777). Consult also: Burton, Life and Correspondence of David Hume (Edinburgh, 1846); and Huxley, David Hume (London, 1879), containing a popular account of Hume's philosophical views. For treatment of Hume's philosophy, consult: Jodl, David Humes Lehre von der Erkenntnis (Halle, 1871); Pfleiderer, Empirismus und Skepsis in David Humes Philosophie (Berlin, 1874); Meinong, Hume - Studien (Vienna, 1877-82); Gizycki, Die Ethik David Humes (Berlin, 1878); T. H. Green, Introduction to Hume, in Green and Grose's edition of Hume's works; also published as part of vol. ii. of Green's Works (London, 1885); Knight, Hume (London, 1886); and the various histories of modern philosophy by Ueberweg-Heinze, Falckenburg, Höffding, and Windelband. HUME, ALEXANDER HAMILTON (1797-1863). An Australian explorer, born in Paramatta in New South Wales. He is best known as leader with Hovell of the cross-country expedition of 1824, on which, when question arose as to the part he had taken in it, he wrote: A Brief Statement of Facts in Connexion with an Overland Expedition from Lake George to Fort Phillip, in the Year 1824 (3d ed., 1874), and, with Hovell, Journey of Discovery to Fort Phillip (1837). He accompanied Sturt (q.v.) in his first exploration. A county in New South Wales, a mountain range in Victoria, and the Murray River (as an alternative title) bear the name of Hume. HUME, JOHN. See HOME, JOHN. HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855). A British political reformer, born January 22, 1777, at Montrose, Scotland. He was educated in the local schools of Montrose, and at the age of thirteen was apprenticed to an apothecary. He studied medicine, was admitted in 1796 a member of the College of Surgeons, Edinburgh, and became assistant surgeon in the marine service of the East India Company. He applied himself to the native languages, and during the Mahratta War, from 1802 to 1807, filled the office of Persian interpreter to the army. He also discharged duties connected with the prize agencies and the commissariat, and arrived in England in 1808, with a fortune of £30,000 or £40,000. He spent some years in travel and study, and published a blank-verse translation of Dante's Inferno in 1812. By purchase he entered the House of Com In 1818 he was elected for the Aberdeen district of burghs, comprehending his native town of Montrose. In 1830 he had gained such distinction as a radical reformer that he was returned unopposed as one of the members for Middlesex, which he represented until 1837. In 1842 he was again chosen for his native burgh, Montrose, and remained until his death in the service of his fellowtownsmen. As leader of the Radical Party in the House of Commons, he usually found himself in active conflict with both Whig and Tory governments, and at first was treated with contemptuous tolerance. He discovered the widespread conspiracy of the Orange lodges to make the Duke of Cumberland King at William IV.'s death, and a tardy but sincere homage was paid to his integrity and public services by Sir Robert Peel and other political opponents. He held various public offices, was a prominent member and leader of several notable societies, and was twice elected lord rector of Aberdeen University. He died February 20, 1855. HUME, MARTIN ANDREW SHARP (1847-). An English soldier and historian, long a resident of Spain. He was born in London, was educated at Madrid, and became editor of the Spanish State Papers in the Public Record Office, London. He had active service with the Turks in 1878-79. He wrote Chronicles of Henry VIII. (1889); Courtships of Queen Elizabeth (1896); Spain, Its Greatness and Decay (1898); Modern Spain (1899); A History of the Spanish People (1901); The Love Affairs of Mary Queen of Scots (1903); Spanish Influence on English Literature (1905); The Wives of Henry VIII. (1905). He also contributed to the Cambridge Modern History. HUME, or HOME, Sir PATRICK (1641-1724). A Scottish statesman. Born at Polwarth, Berwickshire, he was brought up a strict Presbyte rian, and after a term of law study at Paris, he represented his native county in Parliament, where he at once took a foremost place as defender of the Covenanters. He went so far as to bring imprisonment upon himself, and on being freed was suspected of complication in the Rye House Plot, so that he was forced to remain in hiding until he could escape in disguise to the Continent. There he joined the Duke of Argyll, and embarked with him on the unsuccessful expedition to Scotland (1685). Hume became a refugee with a price set upon his head, but he once more escaped abroad, lived at Utrecht under an assumed name, and returned with William of Orange at the Revolution of 1688. With estates restored, he was now a Scottish peer, Lord Polwarth; was made Lord Chancellor in 1696, and Earl of Marchmont in 1697. He strenuously opposed in Parliament the claims of the Old Pretender to the crown, and voted for the union of Scotland with England, though he was not above the suspicion of having received a reward for so doing. Too dogmatic to be popular, he did not hold office in the United Kingdom till the reign of George I., when he was given some minor charges, but shortly retired. HUMERAL VEIL (Lat. humerale, covering for the shoulders, from humerus, umerus, shoulder; connected with Gk. uos, ōmos, Goth. amsa, Skt. amsa, shoulder). An oblong veil of silk, either white or of the color prescribed for the day, which is worn over the shoulders by the deacon in the mass, when he holds the paten from the offertory to the Pater noster, and by the priest in giving benediction or carrying the Blessed Sacrament in procession. HU'MERUS (Lat., shoulder). The largest and longest bone of the upper extremity; the bone of the arm proper, extending from the shoulder to the elbow. It is divided anatomically into a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity is rather the larger, and has a semi-globular head which is partially received into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula or shoulder-blade, forming a ball-and-socket joint. Two processes or projections of the shoulder-blade assist the glenoid cavity in completing the cavity or seat of the head of the humerus. There are three ligaments which hold the humerus to the scapula-the capsular, the coraco-humeral, and the glenoid, the relations being somewhat similar to those of the hip-joint (q.v.). The shaft of the humerus is nearly cylindrical in its upper part, but triangularly prismatic below, becoming flattened and broad at the lower extremity, where are placed the two condyles, with their articular surfaces, and the trochlea between them, which form, with the two bones of the forearm, the elbow-joint. (See ARM; SKELETON.) The broad, flat lower extremity has two depressions on the anterior aspect of the bone; one slight one on the outer side called the radial depression, which is for the reception of the anterior border of the head of the radius, when the arm is strongly flexed; the other, called the coronoid depression, for the reception of the coronoid process of the ulna during flexion of the arm. Opposite the latter depression, on the posterior surface of the bone, is a deep triangular depression, called the olecranon fossa, for the reception of the olecranon process of the ulna when the forearm is extended. The humerus forms with the scapula, as above mentioned, a ball-and-socket joint, the shoulder joint (q.v.). The elbow-joint is a hinge joint, and, to a certain extent, in its relation to the head of the radius, a ball-and-socket joint. HUMFREY, HUMPHREY, or HUMPHRYS, PELHAM (1647-74). A famous English musician, and one of the founders of modern English music. He was born in London. He was one of the children of the Chapel Royal, and while yet a boy composed considerable Church music, and in a book of Divine Services and Anthems, published by Clifford in 1664, there are five anthems ascribed to him. Upon the breaking of his voice he was sent by Charles II. to France for instruction under Lully. The King was so impressed with the genius of the boy Humfrey that he caused him to be supplied with £200 from the secret-service money, to pay the expense of his journey, and in the two years following (1665-66) sent him £100 and £150, respect ively. Upon his return in 1667, he was appointed to the Chapel Royal, where the music he had brought back with him was greatly admired. He had become very skillful in the art of scoring, which, added to his own genius, enabled him to compose anthems which have remained ever since models of beauty in expression, and strikingly apt in the artistic blending of words and music. He was appointed Gentleman of the Chapel Royal (1666) during his absence in France; became Master of the Children in 1672, Composer in Ordinary for the Violins to His Majesty in 1673, and wrote many pieces for the King's band, an organization modeled after "Les Petits Violons" of Louis XIV. His compositions are still in use (many of them still in manuscript) in all the cathedrals and churches of England and America. They are remarkable for their expression and depth of sentiment, as well as for discoveries and departures in harmony; for instance: the sharp fifth, as a passing note, the major third and minor sixth on a bass note, a sequence of imperfect fifth and the augmented or extreme sharp sixth, and the flat third and sharp fourth, combinations new to church music, were utilized by him for the first time. It is supposed from the fact that he frequently indulged in extreme keys, such as C minor and F minor, that his violinists did not use fretted finger-boards, but tempered their scales at will. He died at Windsor and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey near the southeast door. from humidus, umidus, moist, from humere, HUMIDITY (from Lat. humiditas, moisture, umere, to be moist; connected ultimately with Gk. vypós, hygros, Icel. vökr, moist), ATMOSPHERIC. The moisture or aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. This vapor is really an invisible gas, and is the most important component of the atmosphere as to quantity next after nitrogen and oxygen, When this invisible vapor becomes visible it is called dew, fog, mist, haze, cloud, rain, hail, snow, frostwork, or frost, according to the size of the drops of water or the method Water and ice in which the vapor condenses. are not included under the term 'atmospheric humidity,' that term being strictly confined to the invisible vapor. The aqueous vapor in the air is perpetually falling to the earth as rain or snow, and is renewed by evaporation from the ocean, the lakes and rivers, and the soil itself. The quantity of aqueous vapor in a cubic foot of air varies greatly with temperature and locality on the earth's surface. Thus in the air of Arizona and New Mexico there is oftentimes only from 3 to 10 per cent. of the amount that could be held in case the air was saturated. The quantity that can be held in a saturated space varies greatly with the temperature, but does not depend upon the barometric pressure, and is also quite independent of the presence of air in that same space, since the aqueous vapor and the dry air co-exist side by side. The elastic pressure of the dry air and the elastic pressure of the aqueous vapor added together produce what is ordinarily called barometric or atmospheric pressure. The weight of the moisture and the weight of the dry air added together determine the density of a cubic foot of atmosphere at any time. When a cubic foot of space contains as much aqueous vapor as it can possibly hold at any given temperature, it is said to be saturated with moisture. The following table shows that there may be as much in an extreme case as twenty grains of invisible aqueous vapor in a cubic foot if the space is saturated at the temperature of 100° F., and this vapor will exert an elastic pressure of about one pound to the square inch, such as would be counterbalanced by a column of mercury of about 1.9 inches of the barometer. If, now, dry air is added to this cubic foot of space until a pressure of thirty inches is exerted in all directions, then the weight of the dry air at a temperature of 100° F. will be 465 grains per cubic foot, and the combined weight of the vapor and the air, or the so-called saturated air, will be 485 grains. The following table gives these relations for saturation at a pressure of thirty inches and for temperatures between zero and a hundred, computed according to the data adopted in the Psychrometric Tables of Prof. C. F. Marvin (United States Weather Bureau, 1900): air cools at the rate of one degree Fahrenheit for 183 feet of ascent. In this way air that is forced over a mountain may be cooled below the dew-point and form cloud or rain. The moisture in ordinary dry air is easily absorbed by many substances, such as sugar, flour, salt, and in very moist weather objects may become so damp that fungus germs floating in the air and settling on them take root and cover them with mold, or set up fermentation within them. PRESSURE AND WEIGHT OF VAPOR AND AIR IN A CUBIC FOOT OF ATMOSPHERE AT A PRESSURE OF 30 INCHES WHEN SATURATED AT THE RESPECTIVE TEMPERATURES This table shows that the capacity of the unit volume of space or air for aqueous vapor increases very rapidly with rising temperature. When the space is not saturated, the atmosphere is said to have a relative humidity expressed as a given percentage of complete saturation. Thus if the air has a temperature of 100 degrees and contains only 10 grains of vapor per cubic foot, it contains only 50 per cent. of the maximum amount possible at that temperature. The humidity of the atmosphere is usually determined by either the dew-point apparatus or the psychrometric apparatus. In the former the air is cooled down without altering the quantity of moisture that it contains, and the temperature at which that moisture saturates the air is determined. This dew-point temperature is always lower than the temperature of the free air. In the psychrometric method the temperature of a thin layer of water that is evaporating under standard conditions in the open atmosphere is determined. From this temperature of evaporation the psychrometric formula gives us the vapor-tension, the temperature of the dew-point, and the quantity of moisture in the air. general the temperature of the dew-point is about as far below the temperature of evaporation as the latter is below the temperature of the air. The humidity of the atmosphere, although invisible, has a special and strong influence in absorbing radiant energy, whether from the sun or from the earth. See HYGROMETER. HUMIL'IA'TI (Lat. nom. pl., humbled). A monastic Order, which originated in the eleventh or twelfth century, and was confirmed by Innocent III. in 1201. In the sixteenth century it had 94 houses, with about 170 monks, in Italy, but as it was corrupt, Carlo Borromeo (q.v.) tried to reform it. This attempt led to a murderous assault on him, so Pius V. in 1571 suppressed the Order. Several of their houses were turned over to the Barnabites.-A female Order of Benedictines, known as humiliate nuns, or nuns of Blassoni, from their founder, Clara Blassoni of Milan, served as nurses, etc. The Order still exists in Italy, with four houses. HUMITE GROUP. A group which includes the three minerals chrondrodite, humite and clinohumite, of which chrondrodite and clinohumite are monoclinic and humite is orthorhombic. They are basic fluo-silicates and are closely reThe humite group occurs lated chemically. In The rate of evaporation from a moist surface diminishes with increasing humidity of the air, so that the total evaporation under a given wind in any given unit of time indicates the average dryness of the air during that time. Nearly all animal and vegetable substances, by reason of their cellular structure, absorb moisture from moist air, but give it up to very dry air. They are, therefore, perpetually expanding and contracting, curling and uncurling, and their changes may be utilized in the construction of hygrometers. When moist air cools by radiation at night to temperatures below the dew-point, the vapor is precipitated, forming cloud, mist, fog, or dew. On the other hand, when air rises, thereby coming under less pressure, it expands, does work, and is cooled dynamically by reason of the work done. Ordinary mainly in ejected masses of limestone. HUMMEL, hum'mel, JOHANN ΝΕΡΟΜΙΚ (1778-1837). A distinguished Austrian pianist and composer, born at Pressburg. When but eight years of age he accompanied his father to Vienna on the appointment of the latter as kapellmeister of Schikaneder's Theatre. Here he came under the notice of Mozart, who became so interested in the boy that he admitted him to his own family and instructed him for two years. His début in 1787 was also under the auspices of Mozart. Next followed a number of very successful tours through Germany, Denmark, England, and Holland. Probably no other musician had such distinguished teachers and patrons as Hummel. Beginning with Mozart, his next teacher was Clementi, with whom he studied in London during 1791, followed by a course of study in composition under Albrechtsberger in Vienna (1793), while at the same time he was study. ing with Salieri in dramatic writing, and received much indirect, but nevertheless profit |