— with short cuts for the very exceptional man and cross-paths for one who changes his goal-should be worked out for every position, and posted charts showing such routes should visualize to each worker his path of possible advancement. The prick of the spur will be sharpest when selection for advancement is made on merit as revealed in carefully kept records of each man's performance. In order to dispense with the need of calling in the outsider except to start a new line of work each man should train his best subordinate into an understudy for himself, and his own promotion should hinge in part on his producing a man competent to fill his shoes. 3. The isolated worker has the natural incentive to growth, but in a fixed system the supplying of incentive has to be carefully considered. The appeal to fear is the first resource of the dull, unimaginative manager. Hence, in keying up performance, much more has been made of punishment than of attraction. Yet the low productiveness of all slave labor in comparison with free labor ought to have made it clear that the normal man can be led at a faster pace than he can be driven. Reward Distinction Strong Appeal to the More Imagina tive Type Graduated reward lures one to do his utmost. Pay, in addi- Money tion to a fixed element, should include an element varying with Important one's efficiency-premium, bonus, a commission on one's sales, or on the profits of one's sales or with one's length of service. Insurance, permanency of employment, and retiring allowance after a term of service leave good men free to do their best work. Since honor is coveted as well as money, honor should be as carefully graduated and as punctually paid. A non-discriminating treatment of those on different rungs of the organization ladder flings away a precious means of stimulation. In order to whet the eagerness to earn advancement, something, however slight, should be used to distinguish men of each grade from those below. It may be a uniform, a stripe, a band of gold braid, a cap, or a button. It may be the right of precedence, of dining at a reserved table, entering by a special door, sitting on a higher seat, or having one's desk behind a railing or on a raised floor. It may be the privilege of sitting in the presence of the top man, of being addressed as "Mr." or "Sir," of receiving a certain salute, or of donning a certain robe. Whatever be the mark of honor, it should be patent without being conspicuous, its value should be symbolic rather than intrinsic, it should be cer CHAP. Utilizing Cultivating de corps Distributing Credit tain to him who is entitled to it, and it should be consistently withheld from all others. Pitting a man against his record or pitting gang against gang, shop against shop, branch office against branch office, school against school, battleship against battleship, rouses the spirit of emulation. The party organizer gets his workers vying to see whose ward will roll up the biggest majority for the party ticket. The gun squads of different battleships engage in the hottest rivalry for honors in marksmanship. The trusts stimulate production by playing plant against plant and mill against mill. In some armies certain regiments retain a historic individuality and for centuries accumulate trophies and honors. 4. In contrast to the fostering of loyalty and esprit de corps the earliest authorities made little use of "imponderables." "Hear, tremble, and obey" was supposed to provide every incentive. But as we learn more about human nature more heed is given to the spirit of the rank and file. It is something if the body to which one belongs is believed to render a valuable service to society. It is better yet if this value is openly recognized so that one feels himself a member of a popular and honorable organization. When the soldier's uniform commands respect, when a university is old and famous, esprit de corps comes of itself. Even street sweepers develop it after the public has been taught to appreciate the work of the streetcleaning department. If the chiefs keep all the glory that comes from the achievement of their organization, the underlings have the deadening sense of being mere instruments. So, if he is wise, the commander passes the credit down to the common soldier, the administrator ascribes his success to his zealous subordinates, and the railroad manager attributes the safety on his line to the men at the throttle. The rivalry of one organization with another soon kindles esprit de corps. The competition of two neighboring cities invigorates their commercial organizations. The approach of an election sets party workers" on edge" even if there is no real issue between the parties. Intercollegiate contests in debating and athletics are valued for their production of "college spirit." When competing transcontinental railroads have been merged it XXII has been found advisable to preserve their distinct organizations СНАР. in order to retain the stimulus of rivalry. CENTRALIZATION Toward zation In extended organization it is a problem how far the local The Historical body should be subordinated to the general body. History Drift shows a marked drift of authority from the local toward the Centraligeneral. Thus, in the earlier religious orders, each monastery was independent; its monks belonged to it. But the mendicant orders and all the younger orders had each its master-general, its provinces under a prior or warden, and the friars belonged not to any one house or province but to the whole order, and would be told off by the master-general to live in whatever friary or province he pleased. There is abundant evidence that religion tends to lose itself in shallows unless the local congregation is knit up with others into a general church. Without this steadying relation, religious beliefs often become eccentric, while exacting ideals sag towards common inclinations. In the same way a Greek-letter fraternity will see its standards lost sight of if it lacks in district organization and a strict supervision over its local chapters. In Things Spiritual the Union of Local Groups into a General Body Owing to chance, circumstances, and faults of leaders, any local association for general objects is subject to vagary and fatuousness unless it is steadied by membership in a general organization, which of necessity has attained to clear-cut aims and rational methods. Possessing the advantages of experience, breadth of view, and able leaders, the general organization may well exercise control over the local. In the management of common affairs there is much to be said for the general as against the local political body. Too often local control sacrifices general and permanent interests to individual and immediate interests. Local control of education leaves its fate on the whole to men of less caliber and vision than those who determine it under state control. Local care of highways means less outlay on the Faults of roads of the commonwealth than sound economy demands. Lo- Control cal administration of forests or care of public health will generally be less enlightened than that of the state. Law enforcement by locally chosen officers permits each locality to be a law unto itself. In a word, removing control farther from the or Local CHAP. Economy of Central Control At a Given The zation Problem of Recre ation and Leisure Time dinary citizen and taxpayer is tantamount to giving the intelligent, farsighted, and public-spirited element in society a longer lever to work with. The state, too, enjoys the economy of large-scale service. The county has too few blind, deaf-mutes, or feeble-minded to care for each class in a special institution. The management of state charitable institutions by a single central board instead of by separate local boards has proven highly successful. On the other hand, matters which can be appreciated by common-sense, such as the providing of local conveniences, etc., should be left to the local community. Although, as we have seen, the characteristics of an organization flow primarily from the nature of the task, there is, nevertheless, a tendency for organizations to agree in pattern. The principle of the dominant organization or organizations is likely to reappear in all the rest. Thus if, in government, the relation of superior to subordinate is purely authoritative, this spirit may be expected to prevail in family, school, church, business, industry, and voluntary associations. If, on the other hand, government admits into this relation a consultative element, something like it will be found in most other organizations in society. We have seen that the requirements of combined effort go rather against the native grain. As organization comes to emRaises the brace more of us, certain adjustments are necessary if human beings are not to become painfully warped. One is ample provision for holiday and recreation, to allow the bent bow to straighten. Another is access to a variety of means of recreation. The more closely the individual is boxed in while at work by schedule, routine, and direction the wider should be his range of choice out of working hours and the more scrupulously should his freedom to choose be respected. The more one's work conforms to plan, or pattern, or orders the more one's manner of life and one's disposal of leisure time must be relied on to nourish. and to express an individuality. This is why that unity in moral and religious ideas and in ground pattern of life which has sometimes worked out quite well among a peasant or fisher folk is an utterly impossible and undesirable ideal for a people subject to the trying discipline of modern organization. CHAPTER XXIII THE ORGANIZATION OF WILL AN organization may receive its direction either from the will ОНАР. The Organ Will Is the of the Organization of of an individual or from the will of a group. The process by which a group will is arrived at may be termed the organization ization of of will. In the organization of effort, the movement is from the one toward the many, i.e., from the controlling purpose to the coordinated efforts of the various persons who contribute to its accomplishment. In the organization of will, the movement is from the many toward the one, i.e., from the wills of individual members to the single purpose which comes to direct and unify the activities of the group. Organizations may be represented graphically by the cone, the base of the cone representing the individuals organized, the apex their unifying purpose. The organizing of will may be thought of as a movement from base toward apex; the organizing of effort as a movement from apex toward base. Effort tion of Beth Will and Effort Same Group These two types of organization may exist separately or com- Organizabined. In an army, a railroad, a government department, and a municipal service, we see only organization of effort. In a within the church framing its creed, a party drawing up its declaration of principles, a Futurist group hammering out its manifesto, a gild standardizing mercantile usage, and a labor union passing upon a trade agreement, we see only organization of will. On the other hand, workingmen engaging in a strike which has been ordered by the union, farmers delivering their milk to a creamery established by their co-operative effort, the fellows of a learned society prosecuting co-operative research upon lines laid down by the society illustrate how, with respect to the same matter, both will and effort may be organized within a single group. This double process marks what is at once the most difficult and the most evolved type of organization. An extremely informal organization of will is presented in |