wards of a broken heart, and before three years had elapsed, Olaf Pá expired, (A.D. 1006,) with Christian resignation, in his family mansion of Herdholt.

Thorgerda, after her husband's death, told her sons that they ought now to take ample vengeance on Bolli. They accordingly, in compliance with the old lady's wishes, went to Sælingsdale with several of their friends and retainers, and Bolli, being unprepared for an effectual resistance, fell under the battle-axe of Helgi Hardbeinson. Gudruna, who had been out with her maidens bleaching linen, on entering the house found her husband weltering in his gore at the feet of Helgi, who very coolly wiped his battle-axe with the hem of her kirtle. Gudruna regarded him with a significant smile of derision, and Helgi, on being reproached by Olaf's sons for his inhuman conduct, said, "Ye need not reproach me, for I have a presentiment that under that kirtle lies my bane." Gudruna, in fact, a few months afterwards gave birth to a son, who received in baptism the name that had been borne by his father.

When Bolli Bollison was twelve years old, a valiant, though somewhat foolish fellow, named Thorgils Holluson, fell in love with Gudruna, who promised him in the presence of witnesses that if he would join her sons in taking ample vengeance on Helgi, she would not marry any one else in the district. Helgi was accordingly attacked in the usual Icelandic manner and killed, as he had predicted, by Bolli Bollison. When Thorgils reminded Gudruna of the solemn promise she had made to give him her hand as a reward for the service he had rendered, she told him very coolly that she was on the point of marrying Thorkell Eyjulfson.

'How is this!" exclaimed Thorgils, "thou hast deceived

me."

66

Thou

Nay," said Gudruna, "there is no deception. knowest that I promised not to marry any one else in the district but thee. Now although Thorkell does reside in the district, he was in Norway when I made the promise. Thou seest, therefore, that thou hast nothing to reproach me with."

We are not informed what impression this scholastic distinction made on Thorgils; but if the Jesuits had in that age darkened the earth with their ambiguous presence, we think Gudruna might have become a very useful member of their worthy community.

Gudruna's fourth marriage was celebrated with the greatest splendour imaginable. A short time previously she had taken under her protection a Norwegian, named Gunnar, who had killed a young Icelander of rank, and was hotly pursued by his relatives. At the marriage festival, Thorkell, after eyeing this gentleman for some time with great suspicion, ordered him to be arrested. Gudruna, however, instantly sprung from her seat and flew to his rescue, commanding her retainers to draw their swords and defend him, telling her husband, at the same time, that if he did not desist from his purpose, she would there and then be divorced from him. Thorkell, not knowing how to manage such a fiery lady, let her have her own way, and cooled his anger by emptying, at a draught, the capacious drinking horn placed before him." Gudruna afterwards persuaded her indulgent husband to make Gunnar a present of a fine trading vessel, in which she packed him off to his own country.

Some years afterwards Thorkell went to Norway, and was well received by King Olaf II. *, who gave him 100 marks of silver, and sufficient timber to erect a large church in Iceland. Not long after his return home, Thorkell was drowned in the Breidafjörd. Gudruna being again a widow, became very devout, and was the first woman in Iceland that learned psalm singing. She was also the first who became a nun, having in her old age entered the first convent established in the island. Bolli Bollison passed several years abroad, and served with distinction in the famous Varangian bodyguard of the Byzantine emperors. On his return to Iceland, he frequently visited his mother in her solitude, and one day had the curiosity to ask her for which of her wooers she had entertained the greatest affection. Gudruna replied by saying something in praise of each of her husbands; but on Bolli reiterating his question, she exclaimed, with a sigh, "He to whom I was the most evil disposed was the most be loved by me!"

These abstracts of three of the most interesting Sagas that relate to Iceland will render any further details respecting

*Olaf II. reigned from 1015-1028, when Norway was subdued by Canute. Olaf attempted to recover his crown, but was slain in a battle fought near Drontheim, A.D. 1030, and, after being duly canonized, became the patron saint of Norway, or, in other words, the successor of Thor patron saint and tutelary deity being in those days pretty nearly synonymous.

the manners and customs of the Icelanders superfluous. The reader has seen them at their drinking-bouts *, their festivals, their legislative and forensic assemblies, and obtained a good insight both of their public and private intercourse, and he will probaby coincide with us in opinion that the graphic sketches which they have themselves given of their social existence, produce, on the whole, an unfavourable impression. The worst traits of the ancient Scandinavian charactercraftiness, remorseless cruelty, a spirit of sanguinary revenge, perfidy, malice, slander, recklessness regarding the lives and property of others-are, in fact, every where but too conspicuous; though we also find the Scandinavian energy, valour, enterprise, love of independence, and a few other redeeming traits, that render the picture somewhat less sombre.

And

if a strict comparison were instituted between the social condition of Iceland and that of other countries, we should probably be induced to place it, notwithstanding its viciousness, rather above than below the average standard of civilization that prevailed in Europe during those barbarous ages. That an aristocratic republic should have flourished for four centuries on a comparatively barren island, placed amidst the wild waves of the Arctic Ocean, and that the leading men of this republic should have framed a code of laws, which, whatever may be its defects, secured at least an ample provision for the poorest member of the community, and suffered no one to perish from starvation, are facts which will always render Iceland peculiarly interesting to all who make human nature-or the development of humanity on earth, in its multifarious and ever varying aspects-the object of their

* Antiquaries have not been able to ascertain whether the Icelanders brewed their beer from oats, rye, or barley. Previous to the eleventh century bread and wine were unknown in Iceland. The standing dish of an Icelandic family was oatmeal porridge; they had also plenty of butter and cheese, and, on festive occasions, their tables were abundantly supplied with beef, mutton, veal, pork, and horseflesh, and with fresh and dried fish. They appear to have been equally as fond of steaks as the people of this country; in fact, the Old Norse word for cook, is steaker, (steikari,) though meat swain, (matsveinn,) is also used to designate that indispensable household functionary. Our word steak is evidently derived from the Old Norse steik, which, how-. ever, was not restricted to beef; the term being applied by an Icelandic steaker to any slice of flesh meat that he had to prepare for the table. Horse steaks were probably as much in request at an Icelandic convivial meeting, as rump steaks are in a London tavern at the present day.

special attention. It is also a very remarkable fact, that, notwithstanding its rude climate, the Icelanders should have evinced, in every age, an ardent attachment for their native island. To leave it, and lead for a few years an adventurous life in foreign countries, was considered, in the olden time, as the necessary complement of a youth's education. "Heimskr er heimalid barn." Inexperienced is he who remains in his native land-literally, homely is the home-bred child-was a' favourite Icelandic maxim. But whatever might be his career-whether he acquired wealth and renown as a daring sea-rover, or served with distinction in the Varangian bodyguard of the Byzantine emperors; whether he pursued the more peaceful avocations of a Skald or a Sagaman, and became a welcome guest at every court his wandering disposi tion induced him to visit, the Icelander was sure to return and pass at least his old age amidst the volcanic fires and eternal snows of his own cherished island. And even at the present day, when an Icelander hears tell of the genial climes of the south, he exclaims, while he views with a happy contentment the bleak scenery around him, "After all, Iceland is the best land that the sun shines upon! Island er hinn besta land sem solinn skinnar uppá.'

CHAPTER IV.

ICELANDIC LITERATURE.

OUR limits only allow us to give a mere sketch of the literature of Iceland in the olden time. We shall regard it as naturally falling into the three divisions of Eddaic, Skaldic, and Saga literature, and say a few words respecting each :

EDDAIC LITERATURE.

There are two works which bear the title of Edda, the one in verse, the other in prose. The Poetic, or Elder Edda *,

* Various derivations have been given of the word Edda, which in Old Norse signifies simply, great grandmother, in which sense it is used in the Rígs-mál. In M. Gothic atta is used for father, and aithei for mother. Sæmund's Edda was quite unknown to the learned world until the seventeenth century, when the celebrated Torfæus received a MS. containing

consists of thirty nine poems, which were collected by Sæmund Sigfusson, (n. 1057. ob. 1131,) surnamed the Learned, towards the latter end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century. Sæmund, after pursuing his classical and theological studies in the universities of France and Germany, became, on his return to Iceland, the parish priest of Oddi, a village situated at the foot of Mount Hekla, and which had belonged to his family from the time of the first colonization of the island, and where he seems to have devoted himself with great zeal to the cultivation of letters and the education of youth. Some writers maintain, though without being able to adduce the slightest evidence in support of their arguments, that Sæmund merely transcribed the Eddaic poems from Runic manuscripts, or Runic staves; but the most probable conjecture seems to be that he collected them from oral tradition, though he may possibly have found some of the most important amongst them in manuscripts written in Roman characters, shortly after the introduction of Christianity.

3. The

The Eddaic poems may be classified as follows:-1. The Mythic-cosmogonic. 2. The Mythic-ethnologic. Ethic. 4. The Mythological. 5. The Mythic-heroic. 6. The Miscellaneous. One of them-the Sólar-ljód-was probably composed by Sæmund himself, as it is the only one that contains the least allusion to Christianity *. All the others, espe cially the Mythic-cosmogonic poems, bear internal evidence that entitles them to the claim of a much higher antiquity than the eleventh century.

The Mythic-cosmogonic poems are the Völuspá, the Vaf thrúdnis-mál, and the Grimnis-mál. The Völu, or Völo-spá— a compound word, signifying The Song of the Prophetess tit from Iceland. Resenius gave two of the poems in the first edition of the Prose Edda, published in 1665, but we have now a complete edition of all the poems, with notes and glossaries, in 3 volumes, 4to., published by the Arni-Magnæan Commission at Copenhagen, the 1st volume in 1787, the 2nd in 1818, and the 3rd, which is provided with an excellent "Lexicon Mythologicum" by Finn Magnusen, in 1828.

With the exception of a couplet in the thirteenth strophe of the Grou galdur, in which mention is made of the (magical) evil to be apprehended from the dead body of a Christian woman, "kristin daud kona," and per haps also one or two obscure allusions in the mythic-heroic poems.

t Scoticê Vala's spae.-See the Glossary to the Prose Edda. All the Teutonic nations appear to have had their Valas or prophetesses; Cæsar remarks, i. 50, that "apud Germanos ea consuetudo esset, ut matres familias