the judges before whom he speaks, and to persuade them of what is just and true, and consequently his eloquence is addressed chiefly to the understanding. 254. Although these three kinds of public speaking are generically distinct, we are not to suppose that they are never found united in the same disSo far from this being the case, the contrary generally happens in almost every discourse that may be pronounced, whatever may be the occasion. course. For example, a panegyric is not merely a eulogium on the character or the virtues of the person praised, but it contains also an exhortation to imitate them. Here the demonstrative and the deliberative are united. Cicero's oration pro lege Manilia is also an example of the same.-Again, in his oration for Archias the poet, Cicero aims at proving that Archias was a Roman citizen in the sense of the law, and that even if he were not, he ought to be admitted into the number of Roman citizens, on account of his talents and genius, which render him an honour to the Roman empire. Here we observe the demonstrative united with the judiciary.-And lastly, in his oration for Milo, we perceive the demonstrative and the deliberative united with the judiciary. 255. We may remark, that there can scarcely be a cause of any importance that comes to be pleaded before judges which does not contain the three kinds of public speaking above mentioned. Because we can scarcely conceive any cause to arise which does not give occasion to praise or blame, to exhort or dissuade, to accuse or condemn. 256. Orations may be classed also according to their degree of eloquence. 1. Those whose aim is merely to please. 2. When the aim of the speaker is not merely to please, but also to inform, to instruct, and to convince. And 3. Wherein a greater power is displayed and exerted over the human mind, by which we are not only pleased and convinced, but interested, agitated, and carried away by the speaker. 257. Whatever the subject may be upon which the orator has to speak, and whichever of the kinds of discourse he may be called upon to adopt, there are three things which he has to do in order to effect his object. 1. He must find what to say. order. 2. He must arrange it in proper That is to say, he must acquire clear and just ideas of the subject upon which he is to speak, and discover the proofs, the arguments, and illustrations upon which he designs to support his view of the subject; then when these have been duly selected, he must arrange them in such a manner that all the parts conspire to produce the desired effect; and, lastly, he must clothe what he has to say in appropriate language. All which has been expressed by Cicero in these words, "Quid dicat, et quo loco, et quo modo." CHAPTER II. Of the parts of which an Oration is composed. 258. The parts into which an oration is naturally divided are these six:-1. The exordium or introduction; 2. The proposition and division; 3. The narration; 4. The confirmation; 5. The refutation; and 6. The peroration or conclusion. They are expressed in this verse, "Exorsus, narro, seco, firmo, refello, peroro." 259. We are not to suppose, however, that these parts are all essentially necessary in every discourse, nor do they always follow each other in the order in which they are here mentioned. Some of them may be omitted altogether; or they may be variously combined, according to circumstances. For example, the division and narration may constitute but one part. The refutation may be included in the confirmation, and both may be united in the narration. While sometimes the exordium may be omitted, when the orator at once commences with the proofs. But as they form the natural and constituent parts of a regular discourse, it is proper that they should be separately discussed. I.-OF THE EXORDIUM. 260. The exordium or introduction is that part of a discourse which prepares the audience to hear and to understand what is to follow. Its intention` is to conciliate the good will of the hearers by disposing them to listen attentively, and to judge favourably of what you have to say; and to prepare the way for such a train of thought and the awakening of those emotions which will promote the object you have in view. Hence it should breathe that spirit, and be imbued with that passion which the orator aims to inspire. 261. We may distinguish several different kinds of exordium. 1. The exordium ex principio, or simple exordium, when the orator plainly and directly exposes the subject upon which he is about to speak, without art, and without any of those precautions that are usually resorted to in other cases, in which circumstances render it necessary to be at pains to conciliate the good will of his hearers. It takes place when the speaker, being well assured that his hearers are already favourably disposed to listen to what he has to say, enters at once upon the subject upon which he is to occupy their attention. It is most commonly drawn from some topic involved in or connected with the subject he is about to dis cuss. Ex.-A more noble or more appropriate example of this species of exordium perhaps cannot be found in history than that with which St. Paul commenced his address to the Athenians. "Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious. For as I passed by, and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription, To THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."-Acts xvii. 22, 23. Take also the following from the funeral oration of Turenne, by Fléchier. "Je ne puis, Messieurs, vous donner d'abord une plus haute idée du triste sujet dout je viens vous entretenir, qu'en recueillant ces terms nobles et expressifs dout l'Ecriture Sainte se sert pour louer la vie et pour deplorer la mort du sage et vaillant Machabée: cet homme qui portait la gloire de sa nation jusqu'aux extrémités de la terre, qui couvrait son camp du bouclier, et forçait celui des ennemis avec l'epée; qui donnait à des rois ligués contre lui des deplaisirs mortels, et réjouissait Jacob par ses vertus et par ses exploits, dont la mémoire doit être eternelle; cet homme qui défendait les ville de Juda, qui domptait l'orgueil des enfans d'Ammon et d'Esau, qui revenait chargé des dépouilles de Samarie, après avoir brûlé sur leurs propres autels les Dieux des nations étrangèrs; cet homme que Dieu avait mis autour d'Israël comme un mur d'arain où se brisèrent tant de fois toutes les forces de l'Asie, et qui, après avoir défait de nombreuses armées déconcertés les plus fiers et le plus habiles généraux des rois de Syrie, venait, tous les ans, comme le moindre des Israelites, reparer avec ses mains triomphantes les ruines du Sanctuaire, et ne voulait d'autre recompense des services qu'il rendait à sa patrie que l'honneur de l'avoir servie; ce vaillant homme, poussant enfin avec un courage invincible, les ennemis qu'il avait reduits à une fuite honteuse, reçut le coup mortel, et demeura comme enseveli dans son triomphe. An premier bruit de ce funeste accident, toutes les villes de Judée furent émues; des ruisseaux des larmes coulérent des yeaux de tous leurs habitans. Ils furent quelque temps saisis, muets, immobiles. Un effort de douleur rompant enfin ce morne et long silence, d'une voix entrecoupée de sanglots que formaient dans leurs cœurs la tristesse, la pitié, la crainte ils s'écrièrent: comment est mort cet homme puissant qui sauvait |