of surgery; but he tells us also of those engaged in the regular practice of the profession, among whom are Machaon and Podalirius, sons of Asclepius, a king of Thessaly, who afterwards had divine honors paid to him.

Although the practice of medicine in Greece was entirely distinct from religious observances, we find Asclepius, or Esculapius, as he was more generally called, worshipped as the god of medicine or healing. This worship spread among the Greeks and continued until the introduction of christianity. Sick persons went, or were carried, to the temples. just as even at the present age relief is sought by a fanatical pilgrim to some supposedly sacred shrine, or to the waters of some sacred spring.

The sick person, after having made sacrifices, slept upon the hide of the animal sacrificed, at the foot of the god, and proper remedies were supposed to be revealed in the dreams to the priests, and given to the sick. A record of the case, and the medicines used, were kept upon the tablets upon the walls of the temples, and thus afforded the commencement of clinical instruction; even at this early period, the importance of moral and dietectic influences were fully recognized.

Pythagoras, who was born five hundred and seventy years before Christ, was a regular practicing physician. Little is known, however, of the practice of medicine among the Greeks before the time of Hippocrates, who was born four hundred and sixty years before Christ, and who was very justly styled the "Father of Medicine." It is to him, indeed, that we are indebted for the work of placing the medical profession upon that high pedestal of virtue and morality which it has ever since occupied, and which is so beautifully portrayed in the following oath, which was in former times taken by every person before entering upon the practice of medicine, and which was known as the "Hippocratic Oath:"

"I swear by Apollo, the Physician, by Esculapius, by Hygiea, Panacea, and by all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and stipulation, to reckon him who teaches me this art, equally dear to me with my parents; to share my substance

with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring upon the same footing as my brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and, by precept, lecture, and by every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of this art to my sons, to those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath, according to the law of medicine, but to no others.

"I will follow that system of regimen, which, according to my best judgment, I consider best for my patients, and abstain from whatever is injurious; I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such course; furthermore, I will not give to a woman an instrument to produce abortion.

"With purity and holiness will I pass my life, and practice my art; I will not cut a person who is suffering with stone, but will leave this to be done by those who are practitioners of such work. Into whatever house I enter, I will go for the advantage of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption, and further, from the seduction of males and females, bond or free.

"Whatever in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it, I may see or hear, I will not divulge, holding that all such things should be kept secret.

While I continue to keep this oath inviolate, may it be granted me to enjoy life and the practice of my art, respected by men; but should I break through and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot."

The followers of Hippocrates recognized life and disease as processes governed by natural laws which could be understood by observation, and by following which laws they could only hope for success in practice. They believed that the body contained four humors-blood, phlegm,, black and yellow bile, which in proper proportions, constituted health, and that all diseases resulted from any disturbance of these normal proportions. They believed also, in the "Vis Medicatrix Naturæ," and that in most cases all diseases had a natural process, resulting in resolution or elimination from the body, and that it was the duty of the physician to watch for

and foresee these different changes, and assist this natural process, in order that the patient might the more quickly

recover.

Of course, but little knowledge of anatomy and physiology existed at this time, and the diagnosis of disease was of a very imperfect nature. The physician of that period, however, excelled in prognosis, and it is entirely owing to the close habits of observation practiced by this school that we are indebted for the establishment of clinical medicine upon a firm basis, and the vast accumulation of records of diseases and their treatment, which has afforded us such a valuable contribution to medical science.

Two hundred and sixty-five drugs were in use at this time. The use of medicines was, however, considered of but secondary importance. Blood letting was known and practiced to a slight extent.

Praxagoras not long after this period was the first to take notice of the relation between the pulse and the general system; but next to Hippocrates among the Greeks, credit should be given to Aristotle, who, although not a physician, contributed much valuable information to the cause of anatomy and physiology by his writings and investigations.

After the death of Hippocrates for more than a century, the science of medicine shared the decline which seemed to affect all intellectual pursuits, and we have very meagre records of that epoch, and but very little better during the time of Galen.

The conquests of Alexander the Great caused the knowledge of the sciences and arts, as they existed among the Greeks, to be generally diffused throughout the world, and the establishment of schools of medicine at Pergamos, and also at Alexandria and other places; but it was principally at Alexandria, that the doctrines of the Hippocratic school were continued and improved. This school, which was under the patronage of the Ptolemies, rapidly took precedence of all the Greek schools of medicine, especially in the study of anatomy, which had not then been established in Greece, but was encouraged by the practice of embalming that at that time prevailed in Egypt. It is here, among other important

records, that we have the first account of the examination of the organs of living human beings, criminals condemned to death and given to the doctors for scientific experiments.

Herophilus and Erasistratus were two of the most prominent physicians of that school. We have record of only six physicians from their time, to that of Galen, who made dissections of the human body.

Herophilus was a follower of Hippocrates, and noted for his knowledge of drugs and medicine and his practice of the art of bleeding.

Erasistratus established a school of his own and paved the way for the empiric school, which was credited to Philinus, two hundred and eighty years before Christ. This school based its practice entirely upon the knowledge acquired from the records of previous practice and was very successful, both in medicine and surgery.

In the second century the empirics became intimately connected with the school of philosophy known as the Skeptics, and led by an empiric named Sextus. Their doctrines were transplanted to Rome and were in existence at the beginning of the middle ages.

A crude knowledge of medicine, mingled with superstitious observances, existed among the Romans of the earliest date, but their knowledge of medicine as a science, is due to the practice of the Greek physicians.

The first Greek physician who migrated to Rome was Arcagathus, two hundred and eighteen years before Christ. He came from the Peloponnesus. After him, one hundred and twenty-four years before Christ, came also Asclepiades, the intimate friend of Cicero, who established a school, which, although founded upon the school of Epicurus, was really closely allied in practice with that of the Stoics. His theory was the atomistic, according to which all diseases depended upon the size, number and arrangement of the atoms of which the body is composed. In the treatment of disease, most importance was given to diet, exercise and frictions, with the external use of cold water.

The credit of preserving the teachings of this school belongs to Themison of the second century. He was one of the pupils

of Asclepiades, and modifying his doctrines by the additions of his own, formed a system which for centuries existed along with that of Hippocrates. This system ignored the cause of diseases and held that it was only necessary to know the common qualities, relaxation and contraction, and a mixed state between the two, partly relaxed and partly contracted, which existed in the human body, and to counteract these conditions by such remedies as would produce opposite conditions. Signs of these conditions were supposed to be found in the general state of the body, especially the excretions. Themison may be regarded as the author of the Allopathic school.

Tertullian mentions the name of Soranus of the second century as belonging to this school, but somewhat modified. He practiced in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. Some of his works are still in existence in the original Greek, and also in the Latin translation of Cœlius Aurelianus, made in the fifth century.

Mention is made of the speculum by Soranus, although it existed at a much earlier date, as very fine specimens have been recovered from the excavations among the ruins of Pompeii, which was destroyed A. D. 79. This school lasted several centuries and assisted in the revival of medicine in the middle ages.

During the first century Athenæus established the pneumatic school. He advanced the theory that all actions of the body originated in the operation of the universal soul.

The DeMedicina of A. Cornelius Celsus is supposed to be but the translation of the compilation of the knowledge of the Hippocratic and Alexandrian schools as they were understood and practiced at that time. Grave doubt exists as to whether Celsus himself was a physician, but none as to the great value of the information handed down to us by his writings, which rank in importance with those of Hippocrates and Galen.

Pliny, an enemy of the medical profession, by his work on natural history, gives a fair idea of the position occupied by the medical profession during his time.

We are indebted to Galen, who was a physician of the highest philosophical attainments, as well as a most industrious and indefatigable student, for the reformation of the evils