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come the first difficulties, your progress will be more easy and pleasant.

In the mathematical sciences, the principles of which are grounded on the permanent laws of nature, it is particularly agreeable to a student to find that truth is susceptible of demonstration, and that the principles, when well understood, will lead to no mistake. A similar remark is applicable to all the sciences the principles of which are deducible wholly or chiefly from experiments; and to all those branches of Natural History, whose principles are to be collected from the observation of facts.

But in philology, history, geography, ethics and metaphysics, in which facts are to be collected from testimony or principles deduced from reasoning, it is often difficult, and sometimes impossible to arrive at truth, and great caution is necessary to guard against mistakes, which we are liable to embrace, either from the mistakes of others, or from our own false reasonings or defective researches. It is on subjects of this kind, that you are to withhold implicit confidence in the opinions of other men however respectable; and in current tradition, however sanctioned by time and authority.

The first business of a young man, proposing to obtain a liberal education is, to acquire a competent knowledge of what are called the learned languages, by which we understand the Greek and Latin. In connection with these, he should obtain an accurate knowledge of his own language; at least the acquisition of such knowledge should be among the earliest of his accomplishments. There are some general principles common to all languages, and a full knowledge of any one of the refined languages of Europe, will very much facilitate the acquisition of others. There are however some forms of construction, in each language, peculiar to itself, and hence every language must have its own grammar. From the general study of Greek and Latin in Europe, from the real excellence of those languages, and the strong partialities imbibed in their favor, the compilers of English gram

mars, have endeavored too much to bend the principles of the English tongue to Latin rules or forms of construction. Indeed their reverence for the Greek and Latin, and the rules of the grammars of those languages, have probably occasioned a general neglect of the study of the original principles of the English; while an acquiescence in long established forms of the Greek and Latin grammars have prevented some improvements which might have been made in them, as well as in the grammar of our own.

In pursuing the study of the languages, it will be necessary for you to use the common class-books. But I wish you not to rest satisfied with barely learning what you find in those books, and repeating names and rules which you do not understand. On the other hand, endeavor to obtain a clear view of the ground or reason of every distinction of words, as well as of the manner of using them in construction. I once heard a gentleman of good classical education remark, that it was long after he had taken his degree, before he knew what constitutes a rule in grammar; and I have witnessed more striking instances of an ignorance of the very elements of language in men esteemed good scholars. But I go farther, and affirm that there are words in constant use in the English language which scarcely a man who speaks the language understands. The phrase in which a word is used may be perfectly well understood, and yet the man who uses may not be able to define the terms of which it is composed. In constructing grammars, the first object is to simplify the system, by distributing words into classes founded on real distinctions in their applications. Every person must see that there is a real distinction between the names of things and their qualities, and between things and their actions or motions. A very proper course has been pursued in distributing words into classes, corresponding to such distinctions. In general, the common distribution is sufficiently correct; although the terms used to designate some of these classes are in my apprehension, not well chosen. But in or

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der to justify a distinction of terms, there ought to be a difference in the things they designate; and for this reason, I cannot approve the practice of making the article, in any language, a separate part of speech. The article is an adjective; its use is, in some way or other, to qualify the sense of a noun, and this is the use of all adjectives. In general, the words called articles limit or determine the extent of the noun to which they are prefixed, but so do other adjectives. This and that in English, have as specific a use in this respect as the ; and one, has, in this respect, the same use as an. The general use of adjectives is to express some quality of a noun, and thus distinguish it, for the occasion, from other nouns ; and grammatically considered, the words called articles have the same use and belong to the same class. In such phrases as these Here is the man we saw yesterday-Here is this man or that man we saw yesterday-the use of the, this and that is essentially the same; and they should all be classed together in grammatical arrangement.

The same remark is applicable to the articles in other Languages. In Greek i, auros, and ouros, have one general use in limiting or defining the extent of a noun, and belong to the same class of words. It is inconvenient to make a distinction without a difference.

Hence we may understand with how little reason Dr. Blair charges the Latin Language with a defect, in the want of articles. The truth is the Latins used ille, ipse, and hic, for limiting and determining nouns, when they wanted themjust as we use the, this, and that. They did not use unus, ordinarily to denote an individual, as we use the same word, an-but the reason was, they had no occasion for it-the singular number of the noun expressed individuality to a Roman, with as much certainty as if they had used unus for the purpose. And, in most cases, it is true in our language, that an or a is of no essential use. Were it not for custom, the singular number of the noun would to us be a complete substitute for an or a.

It may be further observed that article, that is a joint, [articulus] is a name insignificant in language, and as inapplicable,, as the distinction it occupies, is useless. The words called articles, though often used where they are not wanted, are a very necessary part of language-like all adjectives they express some distinction that is important, to a correct communication of ideas, but they have no distinct use that claims for them a separate place in the classification of words. There is no reason why a word expressing individuality should be distinguished as a separate part of speech, rather than a word which expresses color or dimension. Blue and green are as much entitled to a separate place in Grammar as one.

With regard to the English adjective an or a, there has been an error in all the English books, from time immemorial, of which you ought to be apprised in the outset of your studies.

One of the first things you will be taught is that a and the are articles-that a is the indefinite article and used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate. [Lowth.] That, is, a, a contraction of [an,] one, means one; in other words one means one. But it is said to be used in a vague sense, as give me an apple, that is, any apple. Well, two, three, four &c. are used in the same vague sense. Give me two apples-that is any two-Give me three apples, that is, any three-and so of every word expressing number in the language. But is an or a indefinite? Let us look a little further-"There was a man sent from God whose name was John." Now according to Lowth and his copiers, a is used in a vague sense-it signifies one man, but that man is indeterminate. Again, "there was a marriage in Cana of Gallilee and the mother of Jesus was there"-that is, any marriage, indeterminate. "And seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain"—that is, any mountain-indeterminate. "And Jacob took the stone that he had put for his pillow and set it up for a pillar"--that is, any pillar, indeterminate— Examples might be multiplied without end. And now what

becomes of the observation of Dr. Lowth, and his indefinite article?

But we are told, that an or a is indefinite, till it is rendered definite by its application to known or definite wordsVery true; and so is every numeral adjective in the language. "Two men may be taller than two other men"Here two is indeterminate. But two thieves crucified on the cross, is definite. Then we are brought to this conclusion, and this is the fact, that a or an, instead of giving the character of indefiniteness to nouns, actually takes its own character of definiteness or indefiniteness from the noun to which it refers.

When therefore you read in books or learn in school, that a is the indefinite article you learn that which is not correct. And when you learn further, that a becomes an before a vowel, and a silent h, you learn that which is false-the fact be ing directly the reverse-an being the original word, and n being, in usage, lost before an articulation.

If you should be told that these errors are not very important, you may reply, that still they are errors, and young men are not sent to school to learn errors-They are sent to learn truth.

So also when you are taught that that is a conjunction, you learn that which is not true-When you are taught that notwithstanding is a conjunction, you learn that which is not true. When you are taught that if is a conjunction, you learn that which is not true. These words and many others of a similar character, classed with conjunctions, have not the use of conjunctions-they do not fall under the definitionand the sentences or phrases in which they occur cannot be resolved correctly, without taking them from that class of words, and giving them their true place and character.

If you turn your attention to the verbs, you will find our Grammars equally incorrect or defective.

In tenses, or modifications of verbs to express time, the English Language is richer than any other in Europe. It