It is very doubtful whether envy can ever be justified. It proceeds without a right. Usually, perhaps, it proceeds without any claim of right. It hates without a reason, it covets without a claim. Just to see another happy or fortunate is often enough to stir up envy to a high degree. Seneca, the Roman philosopher, said:

"It is the practice of the multitude to bark at eminent men, as little dogs do at strangers."

He does not call the motive envy, but he might have done so. The wealth or the honor or the power of eminent men is often well earned by honest toil. Then it belongs of right to them. The average man in the multitude does not pretend that he has toiled equally or earned equally, perhaps, and yet he may envy all that the other has earned.

Does not Seneca suggest the explanation of envy? He speaks of "little dogs" barking at strangers. It is perhaps only the little soul, the poisoned heart, that is prone to envy; and no doubt lack of acquaintance and understanding naturally arouses it.

"Base envy withers at another's joy,

And hates that excellence it cannot reach."

The really magnanimous man is largely incapable of envy. He is too just to claim what is not his own; he is too noble to covet what he cannot claim.

Jealousy may now and then be justified. It stands upon a right, or fancies that it has a right.

Instances are often clearer than arguments. Take, for example, the case of Othello. He thought,

wrongly but sincerely, that his wife was false to him. If she had been as much in love with another as he supposed, his jealousy would have been justified. She was his wife. He had a just and legal claim to her affections. He had a right to resent any interference with his rights. The lady Adriana, likewise, in the Comedy of Errors, believed that her rights were being ignored. She thought that her husband was making love to her sister. Her sister told her so. She was justified in being jealous and indignant.

But she was very unhappy. She was also in imminent danger of falling into rashness and absurdity. Accordingly, even though right may justify jealousy, wisdom always seeks to avoid it. It is as dangerous as fire. It is always undesirable, even though it is entertained justly. In this respect it is like indignation and anger. Indignation is certainly justifiable upon occasion, but we never desire to be indignant; for to be indignant one must be conscious of unjust or insolent treatment. Anger is sometimes justifiable, but it is always painful and always dangerous. It may cause one to make a fool of himself and also, perhaps, to injure others without good reason.

So jealousy, even when it is justifiable, is always painful and always dangerous. It is painful because we know or believe that we have been slighted or injured, or that we are in danger of slight or injury. It is dangerous because it is almost certain to rob us of happiness; and it may go so far as to rob us of the love and confidence of others. Thus it may ac

tually do what we at first only fancied had been done.

Again, jealousy is dangerous in that it is apt to warp our true judgment, making us unjust or even cruel. It refracts the lines of thought, just as varying media refract the lines of light, and we see things where they are not.

Finally, jealousy is often merely a sign of weakness in the person who is suffering from it. Just as magnanimous souls are immune to envy, so, in perhaps the majority of cases, strong characters are proof against jealousy. We say that Othello was perhaps justified in his jealousy, yet we almost pity him for being the dupe of a lying villain. The best way, no doubt, to avoid contagion is to cultivate good health. The best way to avoid jealousy, it may be, is to cultivate intelligence, confidence, and sane judgment. We should certainly steer clear of a fearful and suspicious attitude; and we should be just as careful to avoid giving reason for jealousy in another as we should be to guard our own rights. "Jealousy is said to be the offspring of love. Yet, unless the parent makes haste to strangle the child, the child will not rest till it has poisoned the parent."1

1. From Guesses at Truth, by J. C. and A. W. Hare.

CHAPTER X

THE CARDINAL VIRTUES

"All great virtues become great men."-Corneille.

The term cardinal is derived from the Latin word cardo, which means the hinge of a door. Hence cardinal is used to designate this, that, or the other thing upon which something else turns or depends.

Accordingly, the adjective cardinal is employed in many significant connections. We speak of the cardinal numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.; of the cardinal signs, Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn; of the cardinal veins those that carry blood to the heart. In the Roman Catholic Church the cardinal bishops stand next to the Pope-they are the princes of the church. In geography and astronomy we soon learn to depend upon the cardinal points of the compass, north, south, east, and west; and in ethics we sooner or later come to recognize the cardinal virtuesthose that determine all the others.

There are, of course, some differences of opinion as to which are the cardinal virtues; but for many centuries there has been a fair agreement that they are prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. With these four virtues fixed as cornerstones, the temple of manhood should stand four-square, strong, clean, and beautiful.

Let us consider each of these virtues more particularly.

1. PRUDENCE

Prudence is compounded fundamentally of care and caution. It is considerate, discreet, and circumspect. Prudence looks before it leaps. It is a quality of those angels who sometimes fear rather than of those fools who are always rushing in.

At the gate of the palace beautiful stands the porter watchful. When he rings the bell, Discretion appears to ascertain who it is that approaches. Before the stranger guest is admitted Prudence is also called. And again, before the pilgrim knight is sent forward upon his perilous journey Prudence leads him into the armory and fits him with sword and shield, helmet and breastplate, and with shoes that will not wear out. Prudence foresees that even brave men need food and shelter and munitions of war; and Prudence is often the better part of valor.

It is thus that Prudence is found to be close akin to Providence. Indeed, tracing the ancestry of the word, we find that prudence is only a shortened form of providence. Providence looks far ahead and marks out the way. Prudence looks as far ahead as it is able and prepares for what Wisdom says may be encountered. Prudence is wise caution; well balanced forethought.

"One of the first rules of prudence is not to fly off after everything good that offers."1

This fact is very significant. With prudence it is not merely a question of what is good, but what is better; what is best.

1. Austin Bierbower; Ethics for Schools, page 213.