abuse, he was dragged to a chosen spot, and beaten to death by the multitude.

His successor was Vespasian, who had gained renown and influence by his conduct in the war waged by the Romans against the Jews, which Nero had begun, and which Vespasian's son, Titus, brought to a termination. A new era dawned on Rome, at the accession of the Flavian family, in the person of Vespasian. He graced the first days of his reign by an act of amnesty, which comprised all, except the most atrocious satellites of the previous tyranny. senate, from whom he received his power, he wisely reformed. Even conspirators found clemency at his hands; being banished, instead of executed. His general government was mild and tolerant. Yet was he under the sway of his mistress Cænis, whose favour, obtained by bribes and adulation, opened the way to the highest religious as well as civil offices.

The

Vespasian was prosecuting the war in Judea, when he judged it desirable to hasten to Rome, with a view to gain the imperial crown. Titus, thus left by his father to finish the war, pushed the siege of Jerusalem with all the skill, energy, and determination, he could command. The resistance was most determined. But the doomed city fell. Its streets ran with blood. Those of its citizens whom faction spared, and the siege had left alive, perished beneath the Roman sword, or pined away in hopeless captivity. Never, in the bloody records of war, was there presented to the world a more biting satire on what is denominated glory, and never was there inflicted a more terrible punishment on a guilty nation.

"Vengeance! thy fiery wing their race pursued;
Thy thirsty poniard blush'd with infant blood.
Roused at thy call, and panting still for game,
The bird of war, the Latian eagle, came.
Then Judah raged, by ruffian discord led,
Drunk with the steamy carnage of the dead;
He saw his sons by dubious slaughter fall,
And war without, and death within, the wall.
Wide-wasting Plague, gaunt Famine, mad Despair,
And dire Debate, and clamorous Strife, were there;
Love, strong as Death, retain'd his might no more,
And the pale parent drank her children's gore.
Yet they, who wont to roam the ensanguined plain,
And spurn with full delight their kindred slain,-
E'en they, when, high above the dusty fight,
Their burning Temple rose in lurid light,
To their loved altars paid a parting groan,
And in their country's woes forgot their own.

As, 'mid the cedar courts and gates of gold,
The trampled ranks in miry carnage roll'd,
To save their Temple every hand essay'd,
And with cold fingers clasp'd the feeble blade;
Through their torn veins reviving fury ran,
And life's long anger warm'd the dying man.

But heavier far the fetter'd captive's doom!
To glut with sighs the iron ear of Rome;
To swell, slow pacing by the car's tall side,
The stoic tyrant's philosophic pride;
To flesh the lion's ravenous jaws, or feel
The sportive fury of the fencer's steel;

Or pant, deep plunged beneath the sultry mine,
For the light gales of balmy Palestine.

Ah! fruitful now no more, an empty coast,
She mourn'd her sons enslaved, her glories lost :
In her wide streets the lonely raven bred,
There bark'd the wolf, and dire hyænas fed.'

It was on a Sabbath-day (A.D. 70) that Jerusalem surrendered. Above a million of souls are said to have perished in the siege. The captives were ninety-seven thousand. Their last Jewish king - Agrippa II. — had strength or insensibility enough to survive the ruin of his country. He, and his sister Berenice, went to Rome. With the latter Titus became enamoured, but sacrificed his affection to the popular feeling, which was adverse to his union with that beautiful but abandoned Jewess. Vespasian, having reigned for a period of nine years after the fall of Jerusalem, at length died a natural death in his seventieth year. The general excellence of his character, and the justice and mildness of his administration, procured for him what for a Roman emperor was the extraordinary good fortune that we have just recorded.

Titus did not ascend the throne till some years after Jerusalem lay in ruins. We have therefore to speak of him merely as the conqueror of Judea. That he was, for his day, a wise and merciful prince, is not denied. It is not less true, that he sullied his victories in Syria by deeds which would now at least meet with severe condemnation. The capture of the Jewish metropolis was likely to be followed by an indiscriminate massacre. Titus so far interposed his authority as to forbid any to be slain, but such as were found with arms in their hands. Yet were his soldiers allowed to butcher, not only these, but the aged and the infirm. Those who were, in the vigour of life, the young, the tall, the beautiful, were reserved to grace the victor's triumph. Others, being under seventeen years of age, were sent to labour as slaves in the Egyptian mines. A great number were also sent into various parts of the empire, to serve for the amusement of the citizens in the amphitheatres, and to lose their lives in gladiatorial combats, or in fighting with wild beasts. A general inspection and survey of the captives took place at the com mand of Titus, which occupied so long, and was so ill conducted, that during it eleven thousand persons perished for want of food. From Jerusalem Titus proceeded with his plunder, and hordes of captive Israelites, to Cæsarea Palestina. Thence, after a time, he repaired to Cæsarea Philippi, where, says Josephus, a great number of the captives were destroyed; some being thrown to wild beasts, and others in multitudes forced to kill one another, as if mutual enemies.' 'While Titus was at Cæsarea, he solemnized the birthday of his brother Domitian after a splendid manner, and inflicted a great deal of the punishment intended for the Jews in honour of him; for the number of those

who were now slain in fighting with the beasts, and were burnt, and fought with one another, exceeded 2,500. Yet did all this seem to the Romans, when they (the Jews) were destroyed ten thousand several ways, to be a punishment beneath their deserts. After this, Cæsar (Titus) came to Berytus, and exhibited a still more pompous solemnity on his father's birthday; and a great number of the captives were here also destroyed in the same manner as before' Passing from Berytus to other chief cities of Syria, he exhibited magnificent shows wherever he came, and made use of the captive Jews,

with those of Rome. For want of such a comparison, injustice has been done to the former. David committed acts of cruelty that are indefensible. Wherein he did wrong, let him be blamed. His misdeeds were the worse, because he enjoyed special advantages for knowing and doing God's will. Yet fairness requires that we should judge him, not by an abstract standard, but by the average of regal morality, such as it was in ancient times; and, in comparison with the Roman emperors (some three or four being excepted), the instances we have given from the youth of the empire show, that the Hebrew sovereigns stand in no disadvantageous light.

The last disgrace which the Jews, as a nation, had to endure at the hands of their selfish conquerors, was to be made a spectacle to the world in the gorgeous displays of a Roman triumph. The Roman senate, ready to lavish its favours when it expected a suitable return, decreed the honours of a triumph to each of the two subjugators of Judea. But Vespasian and Titus resolved to celebrate their martial deeds in one grand solemnity. The soldiery having marched out of the city to receive the emperor and Cæsar, the latter, as soon as day broke, made their appearance, clad in those purple vestments which were their family badge.

of the shows as they deserve, and the magnificence of them all; such, indeed, as a man could not easily think of, as performed either by the labour of workmen, or the variety of riches, or the rarities of nature; for almost all such curiosities as the most happy men ever get by piecemeal were here heaped one upon another, and those both admirable and costly in their nature: and all brought together, on that day, demonstrated the vastness of the dominions of the Romans; for there was here to be seen a mighty quantity of silver, and gold, and ivory, contrived into all sorts of things; and it did not appear as carried along in pompous show only, but, as a man may say, running along like a river. Some parts were composed of the rarest purple hangings, and so carried along; and others accurately represented to the life what was embroidered by the arts of the Babylonians. There were also precious stones, that were transparent, -some set in crowns of gold, and some in other ouches, as the workmen pleased; and, of these, such a vast number were brought, that we could not but thence learn how vainly we imagined any of them to be rarities. The images of the gods were also carried, being as well wonderful for their largeness, as made very artificially, and with great skill of the workmen. Nor were any of these images of any other than very costly materials; and many species of animals were brought, every one in their own natural ornaments. The men also who brought every one of these shows were great multitudes, and adorned with purple garments, all over interwoven with gold; those that were chosen for carrying these pompous shows having also about them such magnificent ornaments as were both extraordinary and surprising. Besides these, one might see that even the great number of the captives was not unadorned; while the variety that was in their garments, and their fine texture, concealed from the sight the deformity of their bodies. But what afforded the greatest surprise of all was the structure of the pageants that were borne along; for indeed he that met them could not but be afraid, that the bearers would not be able firmly enough to support them, such was their magnitude; for many of them were so made, that they were on three or even four stories, one above another. The magnificence also of their structure afforded one both pleasure and surprise; for upon many of them were laid carpets of gold. There were also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a lively portraiture of itself. For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude

and magnitude overthrown, and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition. Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners; rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now, the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present. On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken. Moreover, there followed those pageants a great number of ships; and for the other spoils, they were carried in great plenty. But for those that were taken in the temple of Jerusalem, they made the greatest figure of them all; that is, the golden table, of the weight of many talents; the candlestick, also, that was made of gold, though its construction was now changed from that which we made use of: for its middle shaft was fixed upon a basis, and the small branches were produced out of it to a great length, having the likeness of a trident in their position, and had every one a socket made of brass for a lamp at the tops of them. These lamps were in number seven, and represented the dignity of the number seven among the Jews; and the last of all the spoils, was carried the law of the Jews. After these spoils, passed by a great many men, carrying the images of victory, whose structure was entirely either of ivory or of gold. After which Vespasian marched in the first place, and Titus followed him: Domitian also rode along with them, and made a glorious appearance, and rode on a horse that was worthy of admiration. Now, the last part of this pompous show was at the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, whither when they were come, they stood still; for it was the Romans' ancient custom to stay till somebody brought the news, that the general of the enemy was slain. This general was Simon, the son of Gioras, who had then been led in this triumph among the captives: a rope had also been put upon his head, and he had been drawn into a proper place in the forum, and had withal been tormented by those that drew him along; and the law of the Romans required, that malefactors condemned to die should be slain there. Accordingly, when

it was related that there was an end of him, and all the people had set up a shout for joy, they then began to offer those sacrifices which they had consecrated, in the prayers used in such solemnities; which, when they had finished, they went away to the palace. And as for some of the spectators, the emperors entertained them at their own feast; and for all the rest, there were noble preparations made for their feasting at home; for this was a festival day to the city of Rome, as celebrated for the victory obtained by their army over their enemies, for the end that

was now put to their civil miseries, and for the commencement of their hopes of future prosperity and happiness' (Jewish War, vii. 5. 5 and 6).

The achievements of Titus were commemorated by appropriate medals, with the superscription of Judæa Capta, captured Judea. One exhibits a female sitting under a palmtree; an emblem of the Holy Land, now sitting and weeping in the dust, while a Roman soldier stands near as if to deride her captivity. Our cuts present two variations of this general subject.

Vespasian and Titus did not, as was usual, assume the title of the conquered country, in this case, Judaicus,- because the name was odions; but they had triumphal arches decreed to them. The inscription, which is still conspicuous on the arch of Titus, speaks for itself:

SENATUS. POPULUSQUE. ROMANUS. DIVO. TITO. DIVI. VESPASIANI. F. VESPASIANO. AUGUSTO.

The Senate and the Roman people to the Divine Titus Vespasian Augustus,

son of the Divine Vespasian. The arch was decreed and commenced, but not completed till after the death of Titus, which was premature. This arch, which was restored by Pope Pius VII. still remains, though in a mutilated state. Some of the sacred objects can yet be traced.

Two of the seven lamps are preserved, and the rest may more or less faintly be traced. Before the candlestick is borne the table which Josephus mentions, but of which he

gives no description in his account of the triumph,though he does in another part of his writings (Antiq. iii. 6.7). Two utensils on the table are called by Reland, acerræ,' censers.' In front of the table are also seen two trumpets crossed, which answer the description of Josephus (Antiq. iii. 12.6); and, as he informs us the originals were made of silver, some have identified them with the form of those used by Moses, for the calling of the assembly, and the journeying of the camps' (Numb. x. 2-11). On the corresponding bas-relief, appears the emperor in his triumphal car, drawn by four horses, and preceded by Romans wearing laurel wreaths, and carrying the fasces; the first of them holds a palm branch in his hand; behind the car is a Victory, in the act of placing her crown on the head of the conqueror. The vault is ornamented with square coffers and roses, and the apotheosis (or deification) of Titus in a square relief. The two victories under the keystone are disfigured by time; but in the hands of one of them is P

ARCH OF TITUS FROM PIRANESI.

An edifice, with the title 'Temple of Peace,' was erected by Vespasian, after the final subjugation of Judea. It was magnificent beyond description, and was enriched with a profusion of pictures and statues, such as called forth the admiration of Pliny and other authors (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 10; xxxvi. 7). Within it were deposited the golden objects taken from the temple of Jerusalem; whilst the law and the purple veil of the sanctuary were preserved in the imperial palace. In the sack of Rome, 465, these sacred objects fell into the hands of the Vandal king, Genseric, who carried them to Carthage. Belisarius recovered them in his conquest of Africa, and took them to Constantinople; and by a strange vicissitude, they were again transferred to Jerusalem, to the Christian church. It is suspected they afterwards passed into Persia, through the hands of Chosroes, who took the Holy City in 614; and many are unwilling to believe that they have yet ceased to exist.

CÆSAREA (L.) as the name of two places in Palestine, given to them with the

view of offering adulation to the Roman emperors-points to that period of national declension among the Jews, when, in their eagerness to adopt heathen customs and manners, and to bend servilely before the martial rulers of the world, they seemed voluntarily to abandon their hitherto high spiritual condition, and to run into the sla very to the outward and the sensuous, which was already prepared for them.

Cæsarea must first be considered as the name of what was in the times of the New Testament the seaport of Jerusalem, commonly called Cæsarea Palestina; properly, according to Josephus, Cæsarea Sebaste. This was a new designation, substituted in honour of Augustus for Straton's Tower, which the place formerly bore. It lay on the shore of the Mediterranean, about midway between Joppa on the south, and the promontory of Carmel on the north. It was, as the seat of the Roman procurator, and as, in his latter years, the dwelling-place of Herod, the civil metropolis of Palestine. This eminence it owed partly to its position, partly to the preference manifested by Herod called the Great, who spared no pains to improve and adorn the place. The seaboard of Palestine is by nature ill furnished with harbours, at the same time that it is much exposed. Yet a harbour on the coast was of great consequence to both the Romans and their subjects the Jews, in the new relations under which the two had come. Such & convenience, Herod, who was fond of building, and of a magnificent taste, undertook to supply in a spirit and manner that became a prince; carrying, at an incredible cost of money and labour, a mole out into the sea, so as to form in the shape of a curve an equally safe and commodious haven. He also laid out and formed a complete system of sewerage. He built, too, a theatre of stone, and an amphitheatre capable of holding a vast number of men, and commanding a fine prospect of the sea. These works employed him for ten or twelve years; at the end of which, in the twenty-eighth of his reign, he dedicated the amphitheatre, in a most sumptuous style, with games and contests after the Grecian manner. As it may serve to show the extent to which the Jews were now paganised, we shall transcribe a part of Josephus's description:- He had appointed a contention in music, and games to be performed naked. He had also gotten ready a great number of those that fight single combats, and of beasts for the like purpose; horse races also, and the most chargeable of such sports and shows as used to be exhibited at Rome, and in other places. consecrated this combat to Cæsar, and ordered it to be celebrated every fifth year. He also sent all sorts of ornaments for it out of his own furniture, that it might want nothing to make it decent: nay, Julia, Cæsar's

He